Can cockroaches learn and memorize stimuli?
Employing stimuli of different modalities, we show in the present study that cockroaches demonstrate individuality in their ability to learn and memorize stimuli employing both classical and operant conditioning tasks. All experiments were conducted with adult male Periplaneta americana.
Do cockroaches have operant conditioning?
In some experiments, after classical olfactory conditioning, memory tests were performed in an open arena where cockroaches could freely choose to approach different odors ( Watanabe et al., 2003; Sato et al., 2006 ). Open arenas and T-mazes have been used successfully for operant conditioning in cockroaches.
Can cockroaches be trained to avoid punishment?
Cockroaches were trained to avoid a punishment and were tested for their memory for up to 24 h. For this, we designed a forced two-choice paradigm where an individual cockroach is placed in a T-maze during repeated training trials ( Figure 1B, cf. Materials and Methods).
Do cockroaches choose the correct direction?
From the third trial on cockroaches chose significantly more often the correct direction (**: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001). (B) Operant conditioning over three trials and a retention test after 24 h. However, this time cockroaches did not learn during training but chose significantly more the correct direction in the 24 h retention test (*: p < 0.05).
How long did cockroaches acclimate to the start box?
For operant conditioning, each cockroach was allowed to acclimate in the start box for 15 min before training . At the beginning of a training trial, the shutter was opened and the cockroaches were allowed to walk freely and enter the target boxes. When entering one of the target boxes for the first time, the shutter was closed and the animal was subjected to a 5 min light exposure (punishing stimulus, US). Whenever an animal entered the same target box again in a subsequent trial, it was again subjected to the light punishment. All animals which did not start moving within the first 3 min in two consecutive attempts were excluded from the experiment.
Do vertebrates have personality?
Animal personality and individuality are intensively researched in vertebrates and both concepts are increasingly applied to behavioral science in insects. However, only few studies have looked into individuality with respect to performance in learning and memory tasks. In vertebrates, individual learning capabilities vary considerably ...
Can cockroaches learn to olfactory?
In the present work, we show that the adult American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, can solve classical olfactory and operant spatial conditioning tasks. In both cases, animals could learn to establish a conditioned response to the rewarded stimulus (CS+), and to diminish their responses to the punished odor (CS−) despite the fact that, in the classical conditioning task, the two odors were not equally important to the animals (high spontaneous responses to isoamyl acetate). Overall, training resulted in the successful expression of short-term memory and long-term memory (after 24 h) in both conditioning tasks. We further show that cockroaches express individuality in their learning and memory performance in classical and operant conditioning.
Do cockroaches drink water?
Cockroaches were allowed to drink water and fed on oat ad libitum. However, water was removed 4 days before training to increase motivation. All experiments were conducted in the active phase (scotophase) of the animals.
Do honeybees have individual learning abilities?
In vertebrates, individual learning capabilities vary considerably with respect to learning speed and learning rate. Likewise, honeybees express individual learning abilities in a wide range of classical conditioning protocols.
Do cockroaches show individuality?
In the present work, we asked whether cockroaches show individuality in their learning performances, both in classical and operant conditioning tasks. Behavioral learning studies that used olfactory and visual cues demonstrated that cockroaches can be assayed for classical conditioning tasks while animals are immobilized ( Watanabe et al., 2003; Kwon et al., 2004; Lent and Kwon, 2004; Watanabe and Mizunami, 2006) or able to move freely ( Watanabe et al., 2003; Sato et al., 2006; Hosono et al., 2016 ). In some experiments, after classical olfactory conditioning, memory tests were performed in an open arena where cockroaches could freely choose to approach different odors ( Watanabe et al., 2003; Sato et al., 2006 ). Open arenas and T-mazes have been used successfully for operant conditioning in cockroaches. Balderrama (1980) demonstrated for the first time that cockroaches could be trained to associate different odors with either sugar or salt solution in an open arena. Mizunami et al. (1998) studied place memory using a spatial heat maze with and without visual cues. More recent studies by Mizunami and colleagues ( Sakura and Mizunami, 2001; Sakura et al., 2002) confirmed and extended operant conditioning of cockroaches in the open arena. Barraco et al. (1981) successfully trained cockroaches in a spatial discrimination task using an electric shock to punish either a left or right turn in a T-maze. Employing stimuli of different modalities, we show in the present study that cockroaches demonstrate individuality in their ability to learn and memorize stimuli employing both classical and operant conditioning tasks.
How many legs does a cockroach have?
About cockroaches. Cockroaches are insects. They have 6 long legs, 2 long antennae, and 2 pairs of wings. Depending on the type, an adult cockroach measures about 1/2 to 1 inch long. Worldwide, according to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, there are thousands of species of cockroaches.
How can get rid of cockroaches?
Along with professional extermination, you can reduce the cockroach population in your home by limiting their access to water, food, and shelter:
What to do if you have cockroaches in your house?
If cockroaches are a problem in your home, contact a professional exterminator and take steps to limit their access to water, food, and shelter. Last medically reviewed on January 27, 2020.
What percentage of homes have cockroaches?
According to the National Pest Management Association, 63 percent of homes in the United States contain cockroach allergens. That number rises to between 78 and 98 percent in urban area homes. To deal with cockroach allergy symptoms, your doctor may recommend over-the-counter (OTC) or prescription medications, such as:
What is the meaning of cockroaches?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Trusted Source. , cockroaches are “unhygienic scavengers in human settlements.”. Keep reading to learn more about cockroaches, and what to look out for.
Can cockroaches cause allergies?
Cockroach allergy. published in the journal Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research, cockroaches are one of the most common sources of indoor allergens. It’s thought that the enzymes found in the excrement, shedding body parts, eggs, and saliva of cockroaches cause allergic reactions in many people. According to the EPA, children are more susceptible ...
Can cockroaches bite?
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Trusted Source. , cockroaches do not bite. They can, however, scratch you with their heavy leg spines. And because they carry bacteria, a cockroach scratch could potentially become infected.
What Do Cockroaches Look Like?
The body of a cockroach is flat, oval-shaped and oily to the touch. Species vary in size with the largest one reaching six inches. The most common types of cockroaches are the American cockroach, the German cockroach, brown-banded cockroach and Oriental cockroach.
What different types of cockroaches live in the U.S.?
American cockroaches are usually 1.4 to 1.6 inches long. Some grow to exceed two inches. These cockroaches are reddish-brown with a yellow band on the back of their heads. These pests have wings that can carry them over a short distance.
What damage can cockroaches cause?
Since cockroaches eat just about anything, they can damage wallpaper, letters, drapes, clothing and furniture. While the damage may seem minimal at first, a sizable cockroach infestation can cause visible problems. Cockroaches can also contaminate many food products due to their activity.
Introduction
Materials and Methods
- Insects
All experiments were conducted with adult male Periplaneta americana. Animals were kept under a reverse light-dark cycle (12 h : 12 h) at 26°C in laboratory colonies at our rearing facilities at the University of Cologne. Cockroaches were allowed to drink water and fed on oat ad libitum. Howe… - Experimental Setups
For classical conditioning, cockroaches were harnessed in custom-made fixation cylinders (Figure 1A) after anaesthetization at 4°C. After fixation, only the animals’ head protruded allowing free movement of the antennae and mouthparts. After habituation in the experimental room for 16 h…
Results
- Spontaneous Response Toward Different Odors
We first analyzed the spontaneous and naive responses to each odor (isoamyl acetate, butyric acid, and cinnamaldehyde) during the very first conditioning trial before the reinforcing stimulus (US) was presented. Figure 2 shows the group averaged responses to all three odors. In all expe… - A Novel Paradigm for Classical Olfactory Conditioning
We established a novel paradigm for classical conditioning in harnessed cockroaches (Figure 1A). The occurrence or absence of the maxilla-labia response (MLR, see section “Materials and Methods”) was recorded as the conditioned response (CR) behavior. In this study, we used differ…
Discussion
- In the present work, we show that the adult American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, can solve classical olfactory and operant spatial conditioning tasks. In both cases, animals could learn to establish a conditioned response to the rewarded stimulus (CS+), and to diminish their responses to the punished odor (CS−) despite the fact that, in the classical conditioning task, th…
Author Contributions
- CA, JB, and ND conducted the experiments. CA, ND, and MN designed the experiments and the experimental setups and wrote the manuscript.
Funding
- CA received a PhD scholarship from the Research Training Group Neural Circuit Analysis on the Cellular and Subcellular Level funded through the German Research Foundation (DFG-GRK 1960, grant no. 233886668 to MN). Additional funding was received from the German Research Foundation within the Research Unit Structure, Plasticity, and Behavioral Function of the Drosop…
Conflict of Interest
- The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
- We thank Sandra Mastani for contributions in an early stage of this project. We thank Peter Kloppenburg for discussion, sharing cockroach facilities, and use of animals. We thank the team of our mechanical workshop headed by Leo Lesson, which designed and manufactured the odor stimulation devices and the flexible cockroach maze kit.
Supplementary Material
- The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2019.01539/full#supplementary-material