how is acetylcholine produced

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Is too much acetylcholine bad?

Too high acetylcholine primarily operates by inhibiting other neurotransmitters. The symptoms of too high acetylcholine may be similar to the symptoms of too low serotonin, as they have a close balancing relationship. Once we have identified potential neurotransmitter imbalances, it is time to treat them.

How does acetylcholine affect the heart rate?

How does acetylcholine decrease heart rate? Via the vagus nerve, the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates neurons that release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses with cardiac muscle cells. Acetylcholine then binds to M2 muscarinic receptors, causing the decrease in heart rate that is referred to as reflex bradycardia .

What is the effect of acetylcholine on the heart?

What effect does acetylcholine have on the heart rate? These channels, initially called K (Ach), slow the depolarization of the pacemaker cell and decrease the heart rate. Furthermore, acetylcholine can initiate and maintain slow modulation mechanisms, with soluble intracellular messengers, kinase activation, and phosphorylation.

Where is acetylcholine produced?

Acetylcholine originates from two major places in the brain: 1) basal forebrain and 2) the mesopontine tegmentum area. Acetylcholine originates in the basal forebrain from both the basal nucleus of Meynert and the medial septal nucleus.

What stimulates the release of acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine is stored in vesicles at the ends of cholinergic (acetylcholine-producing) neurons. In the peripheral nervous system, when a nerve impulse arrives at the terminal of a motor neuron, acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction.

How does the brain produce acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine is synthesized in certain neurons by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase from the compounds choline and acetyl-CoA. Cholinergic neurons are capable of producing ACh. An example of a central cholinergic area is the nucleus basalis of Meynert in the basal forebrain.

Where is the acetylcholine produced and to where does it travel?

Acetyl-CoA is synthesized in mitochondria which are abundantly present in the nerve endings. Most of the synthesized acetylcholine is actively transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by a specific transporter; this vesicular ('quantal') package of acetylcholine reaches up to 50000 molecules per vesicle.

What does too much acetylcholine do?

Excessive accumulation of acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junctions and synapses causes symptoms of both muscarinic and nicotinic toxicity. These include cramps, increased salivation, lacrimation, muscular weakness, paralysis, muscular fasciculation, diarrhea, and blurry vision.

What causes low acetylcholine?

Imbalances in levels of acetylcholine play a role in some neurological conditions. People who have Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease tend to have low levels of acetylcholine. There is no proven way to maintain ideal levels of acetylcholine and prevent neurological diseases.

How do you increase acetylcholine in your body?

There is no proven way to increase acetylcholine levels. However, some evidence suggests that consuming choline, a nutrient, could help. The body requires choline for proper brain and nervous system function. It is also necessary for muscle control and to create healthy membranes around the body's cells.

Does exercise increase acetylcholine?

The more we exercise, the more acetylcholine we use up.

What drugs increase acetylcholine?

Neuro- transmitter:ACh AcetylcholineDrugs that increase or mimic:Nicotine, muscarine, Chantix, nerve gases (VX, Sarin), Alzheimer's drugs (Aricept, Exelon), physostigmine, Tensilon, pilocarpineDrugs that decrease or block:BZ, atropine, scopolamine, benztropine, biperiden, curare, Botox, mecamylamine, α-bungarotoxin3 more rows

What nerve releases acetylcholine?

Preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers both use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter and the postganglionic cells have nicotinic cholinergic receptors. The postganglionic parasympathetic nerves also release acetylcholine, and the postsynaptic target cells have muscarinic cholinergic receptors.

What ion causes the release of acetylcholine?

ACh release is triggered by calcium influx through specific presynaptic Ca2+ channels. The modulation of this calcium influx appears as the main mechanism through which ACh release is regulated.

What triggers the release of acetylcholine from a synaptic terminal quizlet?

Calcium enters the presynaptic cell and causes the release of ACh. As a presynaptic action potential reaches the synaptic terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open.

What type of neuron releases acetylcholine?

In the autonomic nervous system, acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter in the preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons.

What causes the release of acetylcholine from the synaptic vesicles quizlet?

An action potential in the motor neuron causes ACh to be released into the synaptic cleft. Binding of ACh to sarcolemma receptors initiates graded potentials.

How is acetylcholine synthesized?

Acetylcholine is synthesized in certain neurons by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase from the compounds choline and acetyl-CoA. Cholinergic neurons are capable of producing ACh. An example of a central cholinergic area is the nucleus basalis of Meynert in the basal forebrain. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase converts acetylcholine into the inactive metabolites choline and acetate. This enzyme is abundant in the synaptic cleft, and its role in rapidly clearing free acetylcholine from the synapse is essential for proper muscle function. Certain neurotoxins work by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, thus leading to excess acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis of the muscles needed for breathing and stopping the beating of the heart.

Which pathway is acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine pathway. Acetylcholine functions in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In the CNS, cholinergic projections from the basal forebrain to the cerebral cortex and hippocampus support the cognitive functions of those target areas.

How does acetylcholine affect memory?

Acetylcholine has been implicated in learning and memory in several ways. The anticholinergic drug, scopolamine, impairs acquisition of new information in humans and animals. In animals, disruption of the supply of acetylcholine to the neocortex impairs the learning of simple discrimination tasks, comparable to the acquisition of factual information and disruption of the supply of acetylcholine to the hippocampus and adjacent cortical areas produces forgetfulness, comparable to anterograde amnesia in humans.

What enzyme breaks down acetylcholine?

After release acetylcholine is broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Like many other biologically active substances, acetylcholine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells. There are two main classes of acetylcholine receptor, nicotinic and muscarinic.

How does acetylcholine affect vascular tone?

Acetylcholine in the serum exerts a direct effect on vascular tone by binding to muscarinic receptors present on vascular endothelium. These cells respond by increasing production of nitric oxide, which signals the surrounding smooth muscle to relax, leading to vasodilation.

What is the function of acetylcholine?

In the brain, acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter and as a neuromodulator. The brain contains a number of cholinergic areas, each with distinct functions; such as playing an important role in arousal, attention, memory and motivation.

How do muscles contract?

Muscles contract when they receive signals from motor neurons. The neuromuscular junction is the site of the signal exchange. The steps of this process in vertebrates occur as follows: (1) The action potential reaches the axon terminal. (2) Calcium ions flow into the axon terminal. (3) Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft. (4) Acetylcholine binds to postsynaptic receptors. (5) This binding causes ion channels to open and allows sodium ions to flow into the muscle cell. (6) The flow of sodium ions across the membrane into the muscle cell generates an action potential which induces muscle contraction. Labels: A: Motor neuron axon B: Axon terminal C: Synaptic cleft D: Muscle cell E: Part of a Myofibril

Which system is acetylcholine in?

Muscles. In the PNS, acetylcholine is a major part of the somatic nervous system. Within this system, it plays an excitatory role leading to the voluntary activation of muscles. Within the autonomic system, acetylcholine controls a number of functions by acting on neurons in the ​ sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

What is acetylcholine?

Brain and CNS. Acetylcholine also acts at various sites within the CNS, where it can function as a neurotransmitter and as a neuromodulator. 1 It plays a role in motivation, arousal, attention, learning, and memory, and is also involved in promoting REM sleep .

Why is acetylcholine important?

Because acetylcholine plays an important role in muscle actions, drugs that influence this neurotransmitter can cause various degrees of movement disruption and even paralysis. For example, the brain might send out a signal to move the right arm. The signal is carried by nerve fibers to the neuromuscular junctions.

What is the function of acetylcholine?

Function in the Body. Acetylcholine (ACh) is an abundant neurotransmitter in the human body. It is found in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). 1. The name acetylcholine is derived from its structure. It is a chemical compound made up of acetic acid and choline.

Who discovered acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. It was discovered by Henry Hallett Dale in 1914, and its existence was later confirmed by Otto Loewi. Both individuals were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1936 for their discovery. 4

What is the role of acetylcholine in the brain?

Acetylcholine is a critical neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the normal function of the brain and body. Disruptions in the release and function of this neurotransmitter can result in significant problems in areas such as memory and movement.

Where does acetylcholine synthesis occur?

The synthesis of acetylcholine occurs in the terminal ends of axons. Choline acetyltransferase (CAT) is the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of choline with acetyl-CoA to create a new molecule of acetylcholine. CAT is produced in the neuronal soma (body) and subsequently transported to the axon terminus via axoplasmic transport in which vesicles full of various proteins are “hitched” to actin filaments that span the length of the neuron for transport. Although localized mainly to the axon terminus, CAT is present throughout the neuron itself. [5][6]

What is the function of acetylcholine?

The name "acetylcholine" is derived from its chemical structure, as it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Tissues of the body that use this chemical messenger or are responsive to it are referred to as cholinergic. There is a class of chemicals called anticholinergics that interfere with acetylcholine's action on tissues as well.   While ACh operates as a neurotransmitter in many parts of the body, it is most commonly associated with the neuromuscular junction. The neuromuscular junction is where motor neurons located in the ventral spinal cord synapse with muscles in the body to activate them.  Acetylcholine also functions as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, acting both as the neurotransmitter between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons as well as being the final release product from parasympathetic postganglionic neurons.[1]

What receptors does acetylcholine interact with?

Acetylcholine performs its actions by binding the cholinergic receptors (muscarinic and nicotinic).  Acetylcholine performs various functions through cholinergic muscarinic receptors.

How do cholinesterase inhibitors affect the acetylcholine receptors?

Cholinesterase inhibitors cause an increase in activity at acetylcholine receptors by blocking the breakdown of acetylcholine. Because the blocking of acetylcholinesterase causes a build-up of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, there is continuous activation of the cholinergic receptors.  Pharmacologically, cholinesterase inhibitors can help to treat Alzheimer disease and myasthenia gravis since, in both conditions, there is a severe reduction in the amount of native acetylcholine receptor stimulation. Specifically, in Alzheimer disease, there is a decrease in acetylcholine in the neocortex. In myasthenia gravis, there is a severe reduction in the amount of N1 receptors at the neuromuscular junction due to the aberrant production of autoantibodies. Many toxins are cholinesterase inhibitors as well, and these toxins can cause death if given in high enough dosages.

How does botulinum toxin work?

Botulinum toxin works by preventing acetylcholine release from the presynaptic terminals. Hence, local injections can be useful in treating muscle spasticity, cosmetic wrinkles, and migraines.  Black widow spider venom has the opposite effect of botulinum toxin. It causes the cells to release all of their acetylcholine, causing excessive muscle contraction. If all acetylcholine supplies are exhausted due to the venom, then paralysis occurs.

Where are the nicotinic receptors located?

The muscular type is found specifically on the surface of muscle cells at the neuromuscular junction. The neuronal subtype is in the peripheral and central nervous systems. Specifically, N2 receptors are present in the adrenal medulla, on the postsynaptic cell bodies of neurons within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, as well as in various locations in the brain such as the ventral tegmental area, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and the nucleus accumbens. [12]

Where is acetylcholine placed in the axon?

In the axon terminal, newly formed acetylcholine will be placed in vesicles with a minuscule number of free molecules still free in the cytosol. The vesicles are acidified via an energy-dependent pump (H-ATPase), which is utilized to create a gradient for acetylcholine to enter via vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), which exchanges one vesicular proton for one molecule of acetylcholine. [7]

When was acetylcholine first discovered?

Naturally occurring acetylcholine was first isolated in 1913 by English chemist Arthur James Ewins, at the urging of his colleague, physiologist Sir Henry Dale, who in 1914 described the chemical’s actions. The functional significance of acetylcholine was first established about 1921 by German physiologist Otto Loewi.

What is the purpose of acetylcholine?

acetylcholine, an ester of choline and acetic acid that serves as a transmitter substance of nerve impulses within the central and peripheral nervous systems. Acetylcholine is the chief neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system, the part of the autonomic nervous system (a branch of the peripheral nervous system) ...

How does acetylcholine affect the nervous system?

Within the autonomic nervous system, acetylcholine behaves in a similar manner, being discharged from the terminal of one neuron and binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of other cells. Its activities within the autonomic nervous system affect a number of body systems, including the cardiovascular system, where it acts as a vasodilator, decreases heart rate, and decreases heart muscle contraction. In the gastrointestinal system, it acts to increase peristalsis in the stomach and the amplitude of digestive contractions. In the urinary tract, its activity decreases the capacity of the bladder and increases voluntary voiding pressure. It also affects the respiratory system and stimulates secretion by all glands that receive parasympathetic nerve impulses. In the central nervous system, acetylcholine appears to have multiple roles. It is known to play an important role in memory and learning and is in abnormally short supply in the brains of persons with Alzheimer disease.

Where is acetylcholine stored?

Acetylcholine is stored in vesicles at the ends of cholinergic (acetylcholine-producing) neurons. In the peripheral nervous system, when a nerve impulse arrives at the terminal of a motor neuron, acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction. There it combines with a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane (or end-plate membrane) ...

What is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor?

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is an example of a ligand-gated ion channel. It is composed of five subunits arranged symmetrically around a central conducting pore. Upon binding acetylcholine, the channel opens and allows diffusion of sodium (Na +) and potassium (K +) ions through the conducting pore. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

What enzyme destroys acetylcholine?

Acetylcholine is rapidly destroyed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and thus is effective only briefly. Inhibitors of the enzyme (drugs known as anticholinesterases) prolong the lifetime of acetylcholine.

How many molecules are in the nerve terminal?

The nerve terminal contains many small vesicles (membrane-enclosed structures) about 50 nm in diameter, each of which contains 5,000–10,000 molecules of acetylcholine. Mitochondria are also present, providing a source of energy in the form of ATP. Acetylcholine is formed in…

Where is acetylcholine produced?

Acetylcholine is produced in the nerve endings of cholinergic neurons by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). The action of ChAT is the slowest step in the process of signal transduction and is therefore referred to as rate-limiting. It is the availabilities of both acetyl-CoA and choline that determine ACh synthesis.

How does Acetylcholine work?

ACh is present in both vertebrates and invertebrates and together with adrenaline and noradrenaline (NA), it is the principal effector of the autonomic nervous system – the largely unconscious arm of the peripheral nervous system, which regulates the internal organs, controlling visceral functions.

How does ACh work?

Here, ACh will bind to and activate the receptors here, producing the postsynaptic response necessary to further the nerve impulse. Neurotransmitters must be removed from the synapse before another signal can be transmitted. With most neurotransmitters, this clean-up is achieved by reabsorption.

What is the acetylcholine subtype?

Acetylcholine (Ach) is a neurotransmitter that functions in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is a non-monoamine subtype , meaning that it does not contain an amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a carbon chain (which is common to the neurotransmitters of the noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic systems). Instead, it is made up of two chemical groups: choline and acetyl coenzyme A (AcCoA).

What are the two chemical groups that make up choline?

Instead, it is made up of two chemical groups: choline and acetyl coenzyme A (AcCoA). Choline is an essential nutrient present in soy, egg yolks, and meat, and is classified within the B-complex group of vitamins. The precursor to choline, AcCoA, is derived from glucose.

What is the function of ACh?

ACh additionally functions in the CNS where it affects cellular and synaptic physiology to influence networks, resulting in behavioural shifts such as sleeping to wakefulness and distraction to attention.

Where does ACh build up?

Here, it builds up in the synaptic terminal where it recombines with acetyl molecules. ACh is transported into the end of neurons (synaptic vesicles) for storage until release by the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Acetylcholine signalling is stimulated by calcium influx into the synaptic terminal caused by an action potential.

How does acetylcholine release?

Release of acetylcholine is initiated by influx of Ca 2+ ions through voltage-operated N- or P-type calcium channels. The increased intracellular Ca 2+ ions bind to a vesicle-associated protein (synaptotagmin) which favors association of a second vesicle protein (synaptobrevin) with one or more proteins in the plasma membrane of the nerve terminal. Following this vesicle-docking process, fusion between vesicle membrane and plasma membrane occurs, followed by exocytosis. After the expulsion of acetylcholine the empty vesicle is recaptured by endocytosis and can be reused. In the synaptic cleft, the released acetylcholine will associate with post- and prejunctional receptors and is also subject to rapid hydrolysis by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase into choline and acetate. Over 50% of the choline formed will be taken up again by the nerve terminal and reused for neurotransmitter synthesis.

When was acetylcholine first isolated?

Acetylcholine was first isolated in 1914, and its role as a neurotransmitter was identified by the work of Otto Loewi. Acetylcholine is known to play an important role in memory and learning and to be inadequately available in Alzheimer’s disease. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter at various synapses, nerves, ...

How does nicotine affect addiction?

Chronic use and addiction to nicotine have been related to changes in function and expression of nACh receptors. Continued nicotine administration results in upregulation of high-affinity α 4 β 2 nACh receptors. Several genetic studies in mice have shown the important role of α 4 nAChR subunits in nicotine addiction. A mutant form of this subunit showed a higher sensitivity to nicotine, and a lower concentration of nicotine was required to enhance the activity of this receptor. Other studies indicate that α7 nACh receptors may control withdrawal symptoms and that tolerance to nicotine administration may be induced by β3 and/or β4 subunits.

What neurotransmitter is released by large tonically active striatal interneurons?

Acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter released by large tonically active striatal interneurons (Bennett and Wilson, 1998) (see chapter: The Cholinergic Interneuron of the Striatum). From: Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2016. Download as PDF.

What are acetylcholine receptor agonists used for?

Acetylcholine receptor agonists are used to treat myasthenia gravis and Alzheimer’s disease. View chapter Purchase book.

Where does acetylcholine diffuse?

From there, the acetylcholine molecules diffuse through the extracellular space to their receptors on neighboring cells.

How many molecules are in acetylcholine?

Most of the synthesized acetylcholine is actively transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by a specific transporter; this vesicular (‘quantal’) package of acetylcholine reaches up to 50000 molecules per vesicle.

Where is acetylcholine synthesized?

In the nervous system, this enzyme is thought to exist primarily in the nerve terminal cytoplasm. Coenzyme A is synthesized in mitochondria and accesses choline acetyltransferase following transport across the mitochondrial membrane into the cytoplasm. In addition to its synthesis in the liver, choline employed in acetylcholine production is derived from dietary sources. There is a carrier system in capillary endothelial cells that is responsible for transport of choline, in its free and phospholipid forms, into the brain. Hydrolysis of choline-containing phospholipids may also liberate choline that is used in acetylcholine synthesis. As choline acetyltransferase is not saturated by concentrations of acetyl coenzyme A and choline that are estimated to be present in the nerve terminal, it appears that the rate of acetylcholine synthesis is dependent on precursor availability. Enzyme activity is also regulated by product inhibition; by binding at an allosteric site on choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholine inhibits its activity. In addition, mass action and neuronal activity influence the rate of acetylcholine formation. Short-term regulation of enzyme activity is partly achieved by phosphorylation induced by protein kinases. There are no very specific and potent inhibitors of the enzyme and it should be noted that pharmacological blockade of this step (e.g. with naphthylvinylpyridine) in the life-cycle of acetylcholine produces a less profound effect on the transmitter than does inhibition of choline transport.

What is the acetylcholine transporter?

A specific low-affinity acetylcholine transporter is responsible for uptake of the transmitter from the cytoplasm into vesicles. The genes for choline acetyltransferase and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter are organized in a single gene locus, and transcription of the two genes is typically co-regulated. (±)-Vesamicol is a selective inhibitor of this transporter, with L- (–)-vesamicol being more potent than D- (+)-vesamicol. Once packaged in vesicles, acetylcholine is subject to stimulus-induced release by exocytosis. Several powerful toxins impact on acetylcholine release, notably botulinum toxin which inhibits its release.

What toxins inhibit acetylcholine release?

Several powerful toxins impact on acetylcholine release, notably botulinum toxin which inhibits its release. Neuronal acetylcholinesterase very rapidly inactivates the majority of acetylcholine released in brain, although butyrylcholinesterase contained in glial cells may hydrolyze a small proportion of acetylcholine in the synapse.

Why are cholinesterases withdrawn from clinical use?

Some second generation cholinesterases have been withdrawn from clinical use because of unacceptable side effects (e.g, tacrine, metrifonate ). Irreversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are used as insecticides and chemical warfare agents. Choline, which is liberated from acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase, ...

Which cell is responsible for transporting choline into the brain?

There is a carrier system in capillary endothelial cells that is responsible for transport of choline, in its free and phospholipid forms, into the brain. Hydrolysis of choline-containing phospholipids may also liberate choline that is used in acetylcholine synthesis. As choline acetyltransferase is not saturated by concentrations ...

Where is coenzyme A synthesized?

Coenzyme A is synthesized in mitochondria and accesses choline acetyltransferase following transport across the mitochondrial membrane into the cytoplasm. In addition to its synthesis in the liver, choline employed in acetylcholine production is derived from dietary sources. There is a carrier system in capillary endothelial cells ...

Is acetylcholinesterase reversible?

A number of reversible (e.g. physostigmine, BW284C51) and irreversible (e.g. iso-OMPA) inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase are known, and these drugs have the effect of prolonging ...

How to get acetylcholine?

Eating a healthful diet can help a person get adequate choline, which the body uses to create acetylcholine. Ask a doctor before taking choline supplements, due to their potentially serious side effects.

How do medications increase acetylcholine?

Certain medications can increase levels of acetylcholine. They do this by blocking the action of enzymes that break down the neurotransmitter.

What are the symptoms of acetylcholine?

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) say that these chemicals lead to a buildup of acetylcholine in the nervous system, causing symptoms of: 1 wheezing 2 sweating 3 weakness 4 headaches 5 fainting 6 diarrhea and vomiting 7 mental changes 8 muscle twitching 9 convulsions 10 paralysis 11 respiratory arrest

What diseases are associated with acetylcholine?

In this article, we look at how acetylcholine is linked with various health conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, myasthenia gravis, and Parkinson’s disease. We also discuss treatments for acetylcholine-related conditions.

What is the role of acetylcholine in Parkinson's disease?

Increasing levels. Botox. Summary. Acetylcholine is a chemical messenger, or neurotransmitter, that plays an important role in brain and muscle function. Imbalances in acetylcholine are linked with chronic conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.

Why is choline important for the nervous system?

The body requires choline for proper brain and nervous system function. It is also necessary for muscle control and to create healthy membranes around the body’s cells.

Does acetylcholine help with Parkinson's?

People who have Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease tend to have low levels of acetylcholine. There is no proven way to maintain ideal levels of acetylcholine and prevent neurological disease s. However, researchers are developing advanced treatments to help people with these health conditions live longer, healthier lives.

Overview

Pharmacology

Blocking, hindering or mimicking the action of acetylcholine has many uses in medicine. Drugs acting on the acetylcholine system are either agonists to the receptors, stimulating the system, or antagonists, inhibiting it. Acetylcholine receptor agonists and antagonists can either have an effect directly on the receptors or exert their effects indirectly, e.g., by affecting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which degrades the receptor ligand. Agonists increase the level of recepto…

Chemistry

Biochemistry

Functions

Diseases and disorders

Comparative biology and evolution

History