What is the contact hypothesis in sociology?
Contact hypothesis. In psychology and other social sciences, the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members. Following WWII and the desegregation of the military and other public institutions, policymakers and social scientists had ...
What is the people-to-people contact theory?
Also known as the inter-group contact theory, this refers to the hypothesis that people-to-people contact may be a good way to resolve conflict between groups. It was proposed by American psychologist Gordon W. Allport.
What is the contact hypothesis of prejudice?
The contact hypothesis suggests that interpersonal contact between groups can reduce prejudice. According to Gordon Allport, who first proposed the theory, four conditions are necessary to reduce prejudice: equal status, common goals, cooperation, and institutional support.
What is the inter-group contact theory?
Also known as the inter-group contact theory, this refers to the hypothesis that people-to-people contact may be a good way to resolve conflict between groups. It was proposed by American psychologist
What is known as the contact hypothesis?
Central is the contact hypothesis, the proposition that social contact between different groups can, under the right conditions, improve intergroup relations. From: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2012.
What is the contact theory in psychology?
The contact hypothesis is the idea that intergroup contact under particular conditions can reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
Who made the contact theory?
Gordon W. AllportGordon W. Allport is often credited with the development of the contact hypothesis, also known as Intergroup Contact Theory. The premise of Allport's theory states that under appropriate conditions interpersonal contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
Which of the following is a contact theory?
The correct answer is C) Herzberg's two-factor theory. Herzberg's two-factor theory is a content theory of motivation. Answers A, B, and D are process theories of motivation.
What is the contact hypothesis quizlet?
Contact hypothesis. And interactionist perspective which states that in cooperative circumstances interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice. Discrimination. The denial of opportunities in equal rights individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons.
What are the theories of intergroup relations?
The main ideas of the theory postulate that: 1) individuals will represent themselves and others using different levels of self-categorization, based on their prior experiences, motives and the social context in which comparisons occur; 2) self-perception in terms of a salient social identity leads to depersonalization ...
Why is contact hypothesis important?
In psychology and other social sciences, the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
What is realistic conflict theory in psychology?
Realistic conflict theory states that whenever there are two or more groups that are seeking the same limited resources, this will lead to conflict, negative stereotypes and beliefs, and discrimination between the groups.
What are the four ingredients of Allport's contact hypothesis?
The intergroup contact hypothesis was first proposed by Allport (1954), who suggested that positive effects of intergroup contact occur in contact situations characterized by four key conditions: equal status, intergroup cooperation, common goals, and support by social and institutional authorities (See Table 1).
Which theoretical approach to motivation suggest that people have the ability to Realise their highest potential?
self-actualization: According to humanistic theory, the realizing of one's full potential; can include creative expression, quest for spiritual enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, or the desire to give to society.
What provides stimulus to the Definition & Classification of theory Mcq?
The stimulus is provided by facts.
What is the contact situation?
The Contact Situation. 1. The conditions under which groups first come into contact determine the fate of the minority group and shape intergroup relations for many years to come. 2. The Noel Hypothesis identifies three features of the contact situation that lead to inequality between groups.
What is contact theory in sociology?
It was proposed by American psychologist Gordon W. Allport. The contact hypothesis is based on the idea that peaceful and friendly interpersonal contact can help in reducing prejudices between groups and foster better cooperation and friendly relationships.
How does contact reduce prejudice?
Thus, positive contact reduces prejudice on a macrolevel, whereby people are influenced by the behavior of others in their social context, not merely on a microscale, via individuals' direct experience of positive contact with outgroup members.
How does contact hypothesis reduce prejudice?
Contact may also reduce prejudice because it increases empathy and helps people to see things from the other group's perspective. According to psychologist Thomas Pettigrew and his colleagues, contact with another group allows people “to sense how outgroup members feel and view the world.”
What are the processes that are involved in the contact hypothesis?
The contact hypothesis does not specify the processes that are responsible for the positive effects or how the positive effects of contact generalize beyond the immediate situation to other situations, from the specific out-group member encountered to the out-group as a whole, or to other out-groups not involved in the contact. Recent work suggests that four interrelated processes operate through contact and mediate attitude change: learning about the out-group, changing behavior, generating affective ties, and in-group reappraisal.
Why are positive effects more common than contact hypothesis?
Although cognitive research has uncovered a host of mechanisms that limit learning material that counters our attitudes and stereotypes , the research literature suggests that positive effects are more common than the contact hypothesis or cognitive analyses predict. The basic reason is that learning about the out-group is only one ...
How does stereotype change affect intergroup attitudes?
Research supporting the salient categorization model proposed by Hewstone and Brown during the 1980s shows that stereotype change generalizes best to the intergroup level when the individuals involved are typical out-group members. This approach argues that, to protect against loss of distinctiveness for groups involved in contact, two factors are important. First, the salience of group boundaries should be maintained during contact (i.e., group memberships are made salient or the partner is typical [rather than atypical] of the out-group as a whole) to promote generalization across members of the target group. Second, groups should recognize and value mutual superiorities and inferiorities.
How does the extended contact effect help with anxiety?
One way of maintaining category salience while still diminishing anxiety associated with intergroup contact is offered by a recent development of the contact hypothesis called the extended contact effect. This model proposes that the awareness that one’s fellow in-group members have close friendships with out-group members can help to reduce prejudice toward the out-group. A likely reason for this is that the in-group “exemplars” provide normative information regarding how one should behave and also may contribute to the redefinition of the intergroup relationship as less negative. Such an “extended contact effect” does not require personal intergroup friendship for the perceiver. Correlational and experimental evidence of this idea is emerging. Underlying this model is the idea that both in-group and out-group role models should be seen as typical or representative of their groups and not as exceptions to the rule.
What is intergroup contact?
Allport’s (1954) ‘ contact hypothesis ’ proposed that intergroup contact is a powerful means for improving intergroup attitudes. Subsequent theory and research has developed this hypothesis into a full-blown theory that makes precise predictions about the effects of different types of contact on mainly attitudinal outcomes, and how and when those effects will occur. This chapter reviews some of the most important measures commonly used in research on intergroup contact; those specifically pertaining to intergroup contact (both direct and extended), mediating (intergroup anxiety) and moderating (membership salience) mechanisms, and outcomes (outgroup attitudes). Our aim is that the information assembled here can serve both (a) as a ‘toolkit’ for the interested novice researcher and (b) as a useful resource to the experienced intergroup contact practitioner regarding the psychometric properties of these commonly used measures. Research on intergroup contact is of great practical and policy importance, hence it behoves us as researchers to take care to use the best possible tools for the job.
What are the factors that inhibit or facilitate the effectiveness of contact?
Among the moderating variables confirmed by experimental studies are the frequency and duration of intergroup interaction, the presence of intergroup anxiety, the structure of cooperative tasks, the outcome of cooperation, and status equalization. In general, results of laboratory experiments confirm the premises of the contact hypothesis but also indicate the complexity—and potential fragility—of effects of intergroup contact even under highly controlled conditions.
Why is learning about the out-group important?
For example, optimal and continuous intergroup contact has the potential to produce attitude change by revising attitudes in accordance with behavior and by reducing the anxiety often experienced in intergroup encounters.
Who developed the contact hypothesis?
While Gordon W. Allport is often credited with the development of the contact hypothesis, the idea that interpersonal contact could improve intergroup relations was not a novel one. In the 1930s and 1940s, writers had already begun speculating about the outcomes of interracial contact.
Who proposed the imaginable contact hypothesis?
The 'imagined contact hypothesis' was put forward by Richard J. Crisp and Rhiannon Turner (2009) and proposes that simply imagining a positive encounter with a member or members of an outgroup category can promote more positive intergroup attitudes.
How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice?
Secondly, intergroup contact is believed to reduce the fear and anxiety people have when interacting with the outgroup, which in turn reduces their negative evaluations of the outgroup . Thirdly, intergroup contact is hypothesised to increase people's ability to take the perspective of the outgroup and empathize with their concerns. Empirical research has only found weak support for role of outgroup knowledge in prejudice reduction; however, the affective mechanisms of intergroup anxiety and outgroup empathy have accumulated extensive empirical support.
What is intergroup contact?
In some subfields of criminology, psychology, and sociology, intergroup contact has been described as one of the best ways to improve relations among groups in conflict. Nonetheless, the effects of intergroup contact vary widely from context to context, and empirical inquiry continues to this day.
Which hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact has more negative than positive effects on prejudice?
Stefania Paolini, Jake Harwood, and Mark Rubin (2010) proposed that intergroup contact may have more negative than positive effects on prejudice, because it makes outgroup members' social group more salient during encounters, the negative contact hypothesis.
What would happen if groups with a negative outlook were brought together?
If groups with a negative outlook were brought together, it would lead to increases of negative attitudes rather than positive. Allport situated his formulation of the contact hypothesis in broader discussion of racial diversity—a precursor to interracial proximity and contact.
How many studies have been conducted on the extended contact hypothesis?
In the 20 years since its proposal, the extended contact hypothesis has guided over 100 studies, that generally find support for the positive effect of extended contact on prejudice reduction, independent of direct friendship with outgroup members.
What are the conditions of intergroup contact?
Allport's six conditions of intergroup contact are: Mutual interdependence - the two groups must depend on each other in some way. A common goal. Equal status of group members - no one group can be favored over the other.
How many conditions are met for contact to be successful?
Once all six of these conditions are met, contact has shown to be successful at reducing prejudice.
How do psychologists overcome prejudice?
For many years, psychologists have tried to figure out how to overcome prejudice. One theory is the contact hypothesis. The contact hypothesis says that bringing members from different groups together will reduce prejudice. The idea is that exposure to others of different groups will reduce your prejudice for those groups.
Does mere contact reduce prejudice?
Many studies, including Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment, have shown that mere contact is not enough to reduce prejudice. However, there are six conditions of interaction that have shown to reduce prejudice.
What is the contact hypothesis?
After reading this article, you will understand the basis of this powerful psychology tool.#N#What is the Contact Hypothesis?#N#The contact hypothesis is a psychology theory suggesting that prejudice and conflict between groups can be reduced by allowing members of those groups to interact with one another. This notion is also called intra-group contact. Prejudice and conflict usually arise between majority and minority group members.#N#The background to the contact hypothesis#N#Social psychologist Gordon Allport is credited with conducting the first studies on intergroup contact. Allport is also known for this research in the field of personalities. After the Second World War, social scientists and policymakers concentrated mainly on interracial contact. Allport brought these studies together in his study of intergroup contact.
What is a stereotype in the contact hypothesis?
Stereotypes, as defined in the contact hypothesis, are generalisations about groups of people. Stereotypes are often based on sexual orientation, religion, race, or age. Stereotypes can be positive, but are usually negative. Either way, a stereotype is a generalisation that does not take into account differences at the individual level.
Who is the psychologist who studied intergroup contact?
Prejudice and conflict usually arise between majority and minority group members. Social psychologist Gordon Allport is credited with conducting the first studies on intergroup contact. Allport is also known for this research in the field of personalities.
What was the first hypothesis of Allport?
In 1954, Allport published his first hypothesis concerning intergroup contact. The main premise of his article stated that intergroup contact was one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between groups. Allport claimed that contact management could reduce problems with stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, ...
Historical Background
The contact hypothesis is the idea that intergroup contact under particular conditions can reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
Why Does Contact Reduce Prejudice?
Brewer and Miller (1996) and Brewer and Brown (1998) suggest that these conditions can be viewed as an application of dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957).
Examples of Contact Hypothesis
Historically, in contact hypothesis research, racial and ethnic minorities have been the out-group of choice; however, the hypothesis can extend to out-groups created by a number of factors. One such alienating situation is homelessness.
Evaluating the Contact Hypothesis
Allport’s testable formulation of the Contact Hypothesis has spawned research using a wide range of approaches, such as field studies, laboratory experiments, surveys, and archival research.
What is the contact hypothesis?
In the service of theory, the contact hypothesis characterized prejudice as a product of fear, ignorance, hierarchy or a lack of shared life patterns and goals.
When was the contact hypothesis first used?
The history of the contact hypothesis begins in the early 20th century, when American social scientists initiated empirical studies of the effects of intergroup contact. For example, Williams (#N#Reference Williams#N#1934) measured the effects of a series of activities involving white and black women in the Young Women's Christian Association aged 14–18, including a field trip and a buffet dinner. Smith (#N#Reference Smith#N#1943) arranged for a “four-day seminar in Negro Harlem” (p. 26) on black cultural life and accomplishments for white students at Teacher's College, followed by a social tea at which Harlem residents were guests and speakers.
What kind of contact did the study authors randomize across participants?
What kind of contact did the study authors randomize across participants? Some contact was crafted by researchers, while other types of contact were more naturalistic; some contact was sustained, while other engagements were very brief. We also describe the variety of outcomes measured following the intervention. Most outcomes were self-reported attitudes and social evaluations, while behavioral outcomes mostly included observed interactions and measures of friendship with members of the other group. Outcome measures also varied in whether they focused on reduced prejudice toward the outgroup involved in the study or on general levels of social tolerance.
Do contact experiments show positive effects?
On the one hand, the vast majority of these experiments do indeed show positive effects of contact. Of the 27 experimental comparisons that seem most policy relevant, 24 reveal positive effects. The average effect across these experiments is substantively large, diminishing measured prejudice by 0.39 standard deviations. Both results are statistically significant at the 0.001 level, and the inclusion of seven quasi-contact experiments studies does not materially affect the size or significance of the meta-analytic estimates.
What is the contact hypothesis?
A longstanding line of research that aims to combat bias among conflicting groups springs from a theory called the "contact hypothesis. ". Developed in the 1950s by Gordon Allport, PhD, the theory holds that contact between two groups can promote tolerance and acceptance, but only under certain conditions, such as equal status among groups ...
What is the research that Thomas Pettigrew did?
In a new meta-analysis of 500 studies, he finds that all that's needed for greater understanding between groups is contact, period, in all but the most hostile and threatening conditions.
Overview
In psychology and other social sciences, the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members. Following WWII and the desegregation of the military and other public institutions, policymakers and social scientists had turned an eye towards the policy implications of interracial contact. Of them, social psychologist Gordon Allport united early research in this vein under inter…
History
While Gordon W. Allport is often credited with the development of the contact hypothesis, the idea that interpersonal contact could improve intergroup relations was not a novel one. In the 1930s and 1940s, writers had already begun speculating about the outcomes of interracial contact. In 1947, sociologist R. M. Williams described interpersonal collaboration with goal interdependence as a worthwhile strategy to reduce intergroup hostility.
Conditions of intergroup contact
In the years prior to Allport’s framing of intergroup contact theory, social scientists had already begun discussing the conditions of intergroup contact that would produce intergroup anxiety, prejudice, or other “detrimental psychological effects”. Wilner, Walkley, & Cook, two years prior to The Nature of Prejudice, studied segregation and integration in housing projects, and also suggested four conditions under which intergroup attitudes would change for the better. Under t…
Psychological processes involved in intergroup contact
A number of psychological processes have been hypothesised to explain how and why intergroup contact is able to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations. Firstly, Allport (1954) argued that intergroup contact facilitates learning about the outgroup, and this new outgroup knowledge leads to prejudice reduction. Secondly, intergroup contact is believed to reduce the fear and anxiety people have when interacting with the outgroup, which in turn reduces their negative eva…
Effects of intergroup contact
Social scientists have documented positive effects of intergroup contact across field, experimental, and correlational studies, across a variety of contact situations, and between various social groups. Pettigrew and Tropp's canonical 2006 meta-analysis of 515 separate studies found general support for the contact hypothesis. Furthermore, their analysis found that face-to-face contact between group members significantly reduced prejudice; the more contact …
Indirect intergroup contact
One of the most important advances in research on intergroup contact is the growing evidence for a number of indirect, non-face-to-face intergroup contact strategies as a means to improve relations between social groups. While the benefits of direct intergroup contact have been empirically established, its implementation is often not practical. For example, in many countries, racial and religious groups are often residentially, educationally or occupationally segregated, w…
Criticisms
While large bodies of research have been devoted to examining intergroup contact, social scientific reviews of the literature frequently voice skepticism about the likelihood of contact's optimal conditions occurring in concert, and by extension, about the generalizability of correlational research and lab studies on contact.
Though the general findings of intergroup contact research have inspired promise, Bertrand and …
See also
• Betsy Levy Paluck
• Brown v. Board of Education
• Desegregation
• Gordon Allport
• Intergroup anxiety