Some researchers point to inflammation driving the overgrowth of the family of bacteria that Citrobacter falls into.
What are the possible sources of Citrobacter infection?
Citrobacter are found in a variety of environmental sources, including soil and water, and in the human intestines. They are rarely the primary source of illness, though some strains can cause infections of the urinary tract, sepsis, and infant meningitis. Citrobacter species are not regarded as significant etiological agents in human disease.
What is Citrobacter in humans?
Citrobacter organisms are enteric gram-negative rods that are closely related to Salmonella organisms. In humans, Citrobacter species are most often reported as a cause of meningitis in the neonate. Most cases are sporadic, although outbreaks have been described.
What drives Citrobacter overgrowth?
Some researchers point to inflammation driving the overgrowth of the family of bacteria that Citrobacter falls into.
How do you get Citrobacter from stool?
Citrobacter spp. are not common agents of human disease, and are most often recovered from stool as colonizing flora of the gastrointestinal tract. When associated with significant human infection, Citrobacter can be recovered from blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), urine, respiratory tract secretions, and wounds.
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How do you get Citrobacter?
In patient with Citrobacter infections, the bacteria can be transmitted vertically from mother or horizontally from carriers or other hospital sources (14). The infection may occur as sporadic cases or nosocomial outbreaks.
How do you get Citrobacter UTI?
The urinary tract is the most frequent site from which Citrobacter is cultured, often in association with an indwelling catheter. These bacteria may also be cultured from the respiratory tract, a finding that more often represents colonization than symptomatic infection.
How do you get rid of Citrobacter?
Citrobacter freundii infection is usually treated with antibiotics like fluoroquinolones, carbapenems and cephalosporins. The treatment plan depends up on the vulnerability of the microbe to the antibiotics and the site of the infection.
How did I get Citrobacter freundii?
Citrobacter freundii is normally found in water, soil, food, and the intestines of humans and animals. The bacteria was first discovered in 1932 by isolating a pure culture from soil [6]. It is a common component of our gut flora, and many strains are considered “good gut bacteria” and are beneficial.
Is Citrobacter contagious?
MODE OF TRANSMISSION: Citrobacter may be spread by direct contact with hospital staff members, mother to child transmission or through ingestion of environmental sources (fecal-oral route) but person-to-person transmission is more prevalent 7, 11.
How did I get Citrobacter koseri in my urine?
The urinary tract is the most frequent site from which Citrobacter is cultured, often in association with an indwelling catheter. These bacteria may also be cultured from the respiratory tract, a finding that more often represents colonization than symptomatic infection.
What are the symptoms of Citrobacter?
Citrobacter freundii causes: ➢ Urinary tract infections which triggers: • A burning sensation during • Urination, increased urge to urinate, • Offensive smelling urine, • Scanty urination, • Blood in the urine • Fever • Burning or pain in the lower back and / or pelvis.
How can you prevent Citrobacter?
Probiotics are effective in preventing colonic epithelial cell hyperplasia when given before or concurrently with orogastric challenge with Citrobacter rodentium.
Does Citrobacter cause pneumonia?
Citrobacter koseri, formerly known as Citrobacter diversus, is a facultative anaerobe and motile, gram-negative bacillus of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Citrobacter spp. have been implicated in a wide array of disease processes, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and bacteremia.
What antibiotics treat Citrobacter?
Various types of antibiotics, including aminoglycosides carbapenems, cephalosporins, chloramphenicol and quinolones, are used for the treatment of C.
Can Citrobacter cause diarrhea?
Citrobacter freundii is usually considered a commensal species of the human gut, although some isolates have acquired specific virulence traits that enable them to cause diarrhea. Therefore, virulence factors homologous, and some even identical, to those described in E. coli pathotypes were detected in C.
What antibiotics work for Citrobacter freundii?
Carbapenems, cefpirome, amikacin, and quinolones are still reliable agents for treating C. freundii bacteremia.
How common is Citrobacter koseri in urine?
UTIs caused by Citrobacter species have been described in 5 to 12% of bacterial urine isolates in adults.
How do you treat Citrobacter UTI?
Various types of antibiotics, including aminoglycosides carbapenems, cephalosporins, chloramphenicol and quinolones, are used for the treatment of C. koseri infections.
Where does Citrobacter koseri come from?
Citrobacter koseri, a facultatively anaerobic, lactose-fermenting, gram-negative bacillus, belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. 4 It is commonly found in soil and water, and in the intestinal tracts of animals and humans.
How does a woman get a urinary tract infection?
It's pretty easy to get a urinary tract infection. Bacteria that live in the vagina, genital, and anal areas may enter the urethra, travel to the bladder, and cause an infection. This can happen during sexual activity when bacteria from your partner's genitals, anus, fingers, or sex toys gets pushed into your urethra.
Cause
- Citrobacter species are most often associated with neonatal sepsis and meningitis; species members are rare causes of sporadic pneumonia, which occurs almost exclusively in neonates and immunocompromised individuals. Citrobacter organisms were first isolated in 1932 by Werkman and Gillen,337 who proposed the generic term Citrobacter and described s...
Epidemiology
- Most cases are sporadic, although outbreaks have been described. Once introduced into the nursery, Citrobacter species colonization may become prevalent. One study in a neonatal nursery identified 11 of 128 infants colonized with C. diversus.340 The umbilicus was the most frequent site of colonization. In infants, sepsis and meningitis are the most common clinical manifestatio…
Diagnosis
- The diagnosis is made by identifying the causative bacterium in blood, CSF, or in an older child, in sputum. Treatment is with an aminoglycoside or an extended-spectrum cephalosporin. Almost all isolates are ampicillin resistant.
Prognosis
- The fatality rate for Citrobacter infections in newborns and older immunocompromised patients with Citrobacter pneumonia has been said to be high.338,341 Recent data defining these rates more precisely are not available. The complications of Citrobacter pneumonia include associated bacteremia with metastatic foci, particularly meningitis. C. diversus pneumonia may also be ass…
Toxicity
- Citrobacter spp. are often found in human faeces and may be isolated from a variety of clinical specimens. They do not often give rise to serious infections but may cause bacteraemia (Fig. 27.2).
Biology
- Pathogenic mechanisms expressed by strains of Citrobacter spp. are poorly understood. Strains of Cit. koseri express type 1 (mannose-sensitive) fimbriae and occasional strains produce a form of E. coli, Verocytotoxin type 2.
Clinical significance
- In immunocompromised patients, Citrobacter spp. causes bacteremia but rarely leads to CNS disease. C. freundii caused 2.3% of bloodstream infections in the first year after lung transplantation in 190 pediatric patients.26 Infections in immunocompromised patients more frequently are caused by multidrug-resistant strains.23,2729 Eye infections, including keratitis a…
Taxonomy
- The genus Citrobacter has undergone significant taxonomic revision through the use of newer techniques based on DNA relatedness. The genus now contains 11 named species: Citrobacter freundii, C. koseri, C. amalonaticus, C. youngae, C. farmeri, C. braakii, C. werkmanii, C. sedlakii, C. gillenii, C. murliniae, and C. rodentium.15 Citrobacter koseri has replaced the taxon formerly kno…
Properties
- Members of the genus Citrobacter share all the general properties and biochemical characteristics of the family Enterobacteriaceae, including the following: gram-negative rod, catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, growth on MacConkey agar, reduction of nitrate to nitrite, growth both aerobically and anaerobically, and fermentation of glucose and other carbohydrates…
Pathophysiology
- The pathogenesis of Citrobacter infections has not been characterized fully. Most C. koseri isolates produce hemolysins, are piliated, and are resistant to killing by pooled human sera. Tropism for the central nervous system may be due to specific outer membrane proteins. In one study, 79% of strains of C. koseri isolated from CSF had a unique 32-kd outer-membrane protein…
Pharmacology
- Induction of class 1 β-lactamases by imipenem in strains of Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and Serratia spp. is responsible for antagonism of β-lactamase-labile β-lactam agents in vitro. Imipenem resistance in Ps. aeruginosa can occur following selection of mutants that hyperproduce the group 1 cephalosporinase and which are also deficient in an outer membrane …
Overview
- Organisms of the genus Citrobacter are gram-negative bacilli that are occasional inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract and are responsible for disease in neonates and debilitated or immunocompromised patients. The genus has undergone frequent changes in nomenclature, making it difficult to relate the types identified in reports of newborn disease over the years. In 1…
Treatment
- Citrobacter species usually are resistant to ampicillin and variably susceptible to aminoglycosides. Historically, most infants were treated with a combination of penicillin or cephalosporin plus an aminoglycoside. Surgical drainage has been used in some cases with variable success. Choosing antimicrobial agents with the most advantageous susceptibility patt…