What did Galen do?
Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic .
How did Galen become wealthy?
Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching and traveled and studied widely including such destinations as Smyrna (now Izmir ), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova ), Cyprus, and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia. Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.
How old was Galen when he died?
The 11th-century Suda lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 217. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in the tenth century. Nutton believes that "On Theriac to Piso" is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the Suda has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot more or less concurs and favours a date of 216.
Why did Galen leave Rome?
His demonstrations there antagonized the less skilled and more conservative physicians in the city. When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.
Why did Galen use animals to discover the human body?
The reason for using animals to discover the human body was due to the fact that dissections and vivisections on humans were strictly prohibited at the time. Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body.
Why is the exanthem black?
He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was pustular. His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one Thucydides described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools. If the stool was very black, the patient died. He says that the amount of black stools varied. It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions. He observes that in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema appeared. Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath, catarrh, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.
Which logic did Galen reject?
Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic.
What is Galen's role in philosophy?
We may identify three central roles of philosophy in Galen’s work. One, to which he himself gives particular prominence, is the theory of demonstration: this underlies explanations and accounts in the natural world, enables the person trained in it to distinguish secure from merely probable or downright fallacious arguments, and guarantees the reliability of propositions arrived at through its correct application. A second is that Galen’s scientific and medical accounts themselves—of the theory of physical elements, for example, or of causation and change—engage with existing philosophical debates (e.g., between continuum theorists and atomists, or between teleologists and mechanists); and that he here relies strongly on philosophical explanatory categories (e.g., telos, the form-matter distinction). Philosophical technical language and argumentation are also to the fore in specifically medical realms, such as the theory of health or the classification of types of pulse: here too we find a constant drive towards definition and linguistic disambiguation, highly complex schemes of subdivision, and the employment of philosophical vocabulary (e.g., ousia, eidos , sumbebēkos ).
What did Galen write about?
He wrote many works of logic and ethics, and also addressed those and other philosophical questions —especially of epistemology, causation in the natural world, and philosophy of mind—in his medical-scientific writings. His medical, and in some contexts his philosophical, work had enormous influence throughout the medieval period and even later, both in Europe and (through Arabo-Islamic transmission) beyond. Largely ignored by the intellectual world, including philosophers, since the Scientific Revolution, he has recently attracted considerable scholarly attention, especially for his work on scientific knowledge, his contribution to logic, and his discussions of ethics, moral psychology and the mind-body problem.
What does Galen recommend?
Galen thus envisages an intellectual progress from the study of the abstract and fundamental to the particular and individual, and recommends that (at least ideally) a secure knowledge of demonstration should underlie the whole paedagogic procedure.
What is the first step in Galen's philosophy?
But interestingly Galen here envisages two possible pathways for this first phase of the curriculum. For one who aspires to true knowledge, a thorough understanding of Galen’s logical magnum opus, Demonstration , is essential. But there is a more practical compromise: the less logically ambitious or adept may—taking as his starting-point the “introductory” methodological work, SI —proceed to the next stage without that thorough grounding. Some logical training is envisaged here too; but Galen is interestingly optimistic about the ability of the non-philosophical layperson to arrive at the truth on the basis of common conceptions and a basic ability to follow arguments (such ability being contrasted with the tendency of sectarian philosophers to create or succumb to sophistic fallacies); key here is that the person in question should have acquired a solid education in the traditional Greek “fundamentals”, which involved mathematics and logic. But this latter person will—following a Platonic distinction—only be able to aspire to correct opinion, not to secure knowledge.
What is the role of philosophy in Galen?
The role of philosophy in Galen will be better understood through a consideration of the order of his own books which the author suggests ( Lib. Prop. and in Ord. Lib. Prop .) to the aspiring doctor: a sort of ideal curriculum of study which at the same time implies an “order of knowledge”, a conceptual relationship between different intellectual areas.
What did Galen learn from Alexandria?
This study also involved a strong textual element, and—alongside actual anatomy (for which Alexandria remained a major centre, although dissection at this period was restricted to non-human animals)—Galen acquired an in-depth knowledge of the medical, as well as the philosophical, writings of his predecessors.
How many volumes of Galen's work are there?
Galen was one of the most prolific intellectuals of western antiquity, his works extending to 21 volumes of roughly 1000 pages each in the standard Greek edition (with a few additional works surviving only in Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew or Latin translations)—a total of more than 4 million words. While most of his scientific and medical writings survive, many of his specialist works of philosophy do not. He is an extremely adversarial author, a vigorous participant in the highly rhetorical and learned competitive intellectual culture of second-century-CE Rome (the so-called “Second Sophistic”); and he is extremely prone to digression. He often expresses his own views through the twin media of polemic against his opponents and textual interpretation and commentary on his intellectual heroes (especially Plato and Hippocrates). And, in spite of his profound knowledge of the Greek philosophical tradition and “classic” philosophical texts and his engagement with philosophical terminology and modes of argument, he does not define himself as a philosopher, often expressing hostility towards “school” practitioners of philosophy.
What was Galen's interest in science?
Nonetheless, his philosophical interests are quite evident in his practice of biological science. Galen made some key anatomical observations (though most of these were on other primates). However, this inclination toward observation moved his theory into the class of critical empiricism.
What did Galen's father do?
Galen’s father, Nicon, was a prosperous architect. This allowed Galen the leisure to get an education and choose a path of life unencumbered by the need to earn money.
How many pages does Galen have?
A great many of Galen’s works have survived. The Kühn edition of Galen (Greek with a Latin translation) runs over 20,000 pages. There are other Galenic works that only exist in Arabic translations.
When did Galen die?
For many years it has been held that Galen remained in Roman society until his death around 199-200 (based upon the Suda Lexicon written around 1000); however, new research by Vivian Nutton has persuasively set the date of Galen’s death much later.
What is Galen's pluralistic method?
Because of Galen’s pluralistic method, it is appropriate that (for the most part) his own method draws upon his predecessors with additions and corrections. For example, Galen employed the four-element theory (earth, air, fire, and water) as well as the theories of the contraries (hot, cold, wet, and dry).
What works of Galen are lost?
There are other Galenic works that only exist in Arabic translations. However, many of Galen’s works are lost, e.g., many of his treatises on philosophy (logic, physics, and ethics) perished in a fire that consumed the Temple of Peace in 191. 2. Hellenistic Schools of Medicine.
What is Galen's critical empiricism?
Galen’s Critical Empiricism. References and Further Reading. 1. Life. Galen of Pergamum was a physician who was born in Pergamum was a bustling and vibrant city at the time and was particularly famous for its statue of Asclepius, a god of healing. Throughout Galen’s life, he avowed a devotion to Asclepius.
Why is Galen so famous?
Galen had great expertise in anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, and therapeutic methods. He is famous for bringing philosophy into medicine – although most of his philosophical works have been lost. We know more about him than other ancient scientist because of the sheer abundance of his medical writing.
What did Galen do in his career?
He chose to work in an area where you could not hide from your mistakes. He became physician to the gladiators of the Temple of Pergamon’s High Priest. According to Galen, his four years in this practice enabled him to learn even more about medicine.
What is the name of the city that Galen lived in?
Sometimes people use the names Galen of Pergamon or Claudius Galen to identify him. Pergamon was an ideal place for Galen to grow up; it was one of the most important cultural cities of ancient times, with a highly active intellectual community. Its library was bettered only by the Great Library of Alexandria.
Why did Galen drop out of his philosophy classes?
Nicon was not one to disobey the gods; Galen immediately dropped out of his logic and philosophy classes in favor of medicine. For the rest of his life, Galen believed that Asclepius came to help him whenever he was badly in need of help.
How old was Galen when he returned to Pergamon?
Galen disliked almost every aspect of life in Alexandria, except for what he could learn there. He returned to Pergamon aged 28 or 29. He had been in danger of becoming an eternal student – if you are rich and enjoy learning as much as Galen did, you can always find more to learn.
What did Galen think of the best physicians?
Although he spent most of his time on medical work, Galen continued to think about philosophy. He believed the best physicians mixed philosophy with medicine.
Why were windows important to Galen?
The ‘windows’ proved to be very important to Galen’s increasingly sophisticated understanding of human anatomy, because dissection of human bodies was made illegal in the Roman Empire in the year 150 A.D.
What did Galen believe about anatomy?
Galen believed that anatomy was the foundation of all medicine and that knowledge of the body was a pre-requisite for every medical practitioner , a view which has been enormously influential. He also proposed a new theory of the circulatory system based on the ‘four humors’.
What did Galen do for the world?
Galen was pivotal in the history of medicine . He pioneered a new scientific method and was the father of modern anatomy. He published hundreds of works that influenced later Roman and Greek doctors, but also medicine in the Byzantine and Muslim Worlds. Translations of his works inspired many Arab physicians who made great advances in medicine. Given the times Galen lived in, it’s not surprising to learn that some of his theories were wrong and were refuted by later experts during the Renaissance, such as Andreas Vesalius.
What did Galen do to make his work so famous?
He mainly carried out vivisections on monkeys at first but found them too human-like and he later began studying pigs. The physicians often held public displays of his anatomical studies and this made him famous . Galen believed that anatomy was the foundation of all medicine and that knowledge of the body was a pre-requisite for every medical practitioner, a view which has been enormously influential. He also proposed a new theory of the circulatory system based on the ‘four humors’.
Why was Galen so famous?
It was at this time Galen became famous for his anatomical knowledge. He was only able to study the corpses of dead animals because the vivisection of humans was prohibited at this time. Galen’s anatomical reports on the nervous systems of animals and their vocal cords were revolutionary.
Why did Galen leave Rome?
Galen left Rome in 166 AD and returned to Pergamum. Though he claimed that he was leaving because he feared assassination, some scholars suspect that it was really because he wanted to flee the plague.
What did Galen learn from Pergamum?
In 157 AD he returned to Pergamum and became the physician to a Gladiatorial school. During his time there, Galen learned a lot about the human body. He became a great surgeon and he wrote extensively on the discipline, contributing to the advancement of surgical practice in the Classical World.
What was Galen's most important contribution to the study of psychology?
One of his most original contributions was his belief that there was no distinction between mind and body and that all mental activity was ultimately a result of biological process. Many also believe that Galen was one of the first psychologists.
What did Galen believe about the brain?
Galen believed this human rete transformed "vital spirits" (essentially, oxygenated blood) into "animal spirits" (the material of imagination and intellect) that lived in empty spaces inside the brain. To him, the brain itself was just a dull mechanical participant in the activities of the mind, pumping these animal spirits around the body. And because this world-changing physician was so revered, and his word taken so staunchly as fact, the next 1400 years saw advances in neurology come to a near standstill, as the brain itself was ignored in favor of this imaginary system.
What was Galen's work?
His work was so revered that it became the curriculum for medical students for centuries. But there was a major impasse in Galen’s oeuvre; dissecting a human cadaver in ancient Rome was not only an unthinkable taboo, it was illegal. So Galen conducted his studies of human anatomy on animal corpses.
Who was the first to describe the existence of a rete mirabile?
Galen's Goof. The existence of a rete mirabile located in the human head was first described by the influential Greek physician Galen. In the 2nd century CE, Galen served as physician to the imperial court of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Was Vesalius's heresy anatomical?
They preferred to believe that their eyes were fallible rather than that the great Galen could be wrong. But the missing rete wasn't the only anatomical error that Vesalius uncovered, and it wasn't even the only mistake localized to the head.
Overview
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen (/ˈɡeɪlən/) or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,
Biography
Galen's Greek name Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from the adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.
Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. He was born in September 129 CE. His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy patrician, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, a…
Medicine
Galen contributed a substantial amount to the understanding of pathology. Under the Hippocratic bodily humors theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology of human temperaments. In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor correspon…
Philosophy
Although the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work That the Best Physician is also a Philoso…
Psychology
Galen believed there is no sharp distinction between the mental and the physical. This was a controversial argument at the time, and Galen agreed with some Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties. He believed that this could be scientifically shown. This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent. Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions. According to Galen, th…
Published works
Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from Augustine of Hippo. So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the extant literature from ancient Greece. It has been reported that Galen employed twenty scribes to write down his words. Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises, amounting …
Legacy
In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary, the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of A…
See also
• Abascantus
• Galenic formulation
• Timeline of medicine and medical technology
• History of medicine
Life
Philosophy and The Galenic Corpus
Epistemology: Demonstration, Scientific Method, Human Knowledge
Logic: Historical Contribution
Causation
Physical Theory and Biological Concepts
Philosophy of Mind
Ethics
- 8.1 Overall Model and Approach
Galen’s theoretical ethics is closely related to his Platonistconception of the soul. Central is the view that rational andnon-rational psychic capacities must be treated separately, both interms of early discipline and education and in terms of ourconceptualization and treatment of their patho… - 8.2 The pathē
A standard point of school conflict in the ethical discourse ofGalen’s time was that between the Stoic insistence on the needfor total eradication of the affections (related to thedoctrinal position that any giving-in to pathos is in fact aform of madness) and the Platonic-Aristotelian advocacy …
Theology
Life
Hellenistic Schools of Medicine
Method
Galen’s Critical Empiricism
- One of the striking features of ancient medicine is the extent that very limited observations had to be interpreted in order to explain natural function. For example, given that blood was considered to be nourishment, trophe, it seemed reasonable (following Aristotle) that the blood would be entirely consumed by the body’s tissue. Thus, the blood w...
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