Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inqui…
What were the punishments of the Spanish Inquisition?
Torture was used only to get a confession and wasn't meant to actually punish the accused heretic for his crimes. Some inquisitors used starvation, forced the accused to consume and hold vast quantities of water or other fluids, or heaped burning coals on parts of their body. But these methods didn't always work fast enough for their liking. Strappado is a form of torture that began with the ...
What are some interesting facts about the Spanish Inquisition?
Spanish Inquisition Key Facts. The Spanish Inquisition was a judicial institution that lasted between 1478 and 1834. Its ostensible purpose was to combat heresy in Spain, but, in practice, it resulted in consolidating power in the monarchy of the newly unified Spanish kingdom. Its brutal methods led to widespread death and suffering.
Why did Philip II of Spain start the Inquisition?
Philip also attempted to improve the quality of the Spanish Church. He enforced the decrees of the Council of Trent in Spain and employed the Spanish Inquisition to eradicate heresy and monitor the progress of the reform programme. Moreover, Philip actively defended and promoted the interests of Catholicism beyond Spain's borders.
What were the consequences of the Spanish Inquisition?
We identified three principal categories of effects of the Spanish Inquisition: sociological effects, economical effects and political effects. The end of a multicultural frame work, a massive conversion of Jews, The elimination of a plural and open society. Thousands of people were arrested, tortured and executed in Spain.
What was the Spanish Inquisition Why did it happen?
Spanish Inquisition, (1478–1834), judicial institution ostensibly established to combat heresy in Spain. In practice, the Spanish Inquisition served to consolidate power in the monarchy of the newly unified Spanish kingdom, but it achieved that end through infamously brutal methods.
What did the Spanish Inquisition do to Jews?
Tomas de Torquemada, the Grand Inquisitor, is said to have petitioned the monarchs to expel all Jews for years before they finally issued the order on March 31, 1492. The results were catastrophic.
How many Jews were killed during Inquisition?
Beginning in the 12th century and continuing for hundreds of years, the Inquisition is infamous for the severity of its tortures and its persecution of Jews and Muslims. Its worst manifestation was in Spain, where the Spanish Inquisition was a dominant force for more than 200 years, resulting in some 32,000 executions.
Why did Spain expel the Jews?
Spanish Catholics believed that the Jews had too much economic influence over the kingdoms, and this resentment, combined with religious prejudice, led to the expulsion.
What happened to the Jews after the Spanish Inquisition?
Due to continuing attacks, around 50,000 more had converted by 1415. Those who remained decided to convert to avoid expulsion. As a result of the Alhambra decree and the prior persecution, over 200,000 Jews converted to Catholicism and between 40,000 and 100,000 were expelled.
Who did the Spanish Inquisition target?
Who did the Spanish Inquisition target? Originally, the Inquisition was to ensure that those who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism or Islam had done so properly. This regulation intensified after two royal decrees were issued (in 1492 and 1501) ordering Jews and Muslims to choose baptism or exile.
How many were killed during the Inquisition?
Estimates of the number killed by the Spanish Inquisition, which Sixtus IV authorised in a papal bull in 1478, have ranged from 30,000 to 300,000. Some historians are convinced that millions died.
How many Jews lived in Spain before expulsion?
Historians reckon there were about 200,000 Jews in Spain before their expulsion, which followed the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492. Sephardi Jews settled mainly in North Africa, the Balkans, Turkey and, later, Latin America. Jews who get Spanish nationality under the new law are not required to move to Spain.
How many people died during the Spanish Inquisition?
Thousands were burned at the stake under Torquemada, the most notorious of the grand inquisitors, and tens of thousands were killed during the forc...
How did the Spanish Inquisition work?
When the Inquisition opened an investigation in an area, inquisitors typically would offer comparatively light penances to those who were willing t...
When did the Spanish Inquisition end?
The Spanish queen regent María Cristina de Borbón issued a decree abolishing the Spanish Inquisition on July 15, 1834. The papal Inquisition—founde...
Did anyone expect the Spanish Inquisition?
Pope Lucius III declared the first inquisition in 1184, nearly 300 years before the creation of the Spanish Inquisition, and the use of torture was...
How did the Spanish Inquisition help the Spanish?
As one manifestation of the Counter-Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition worked actively to impede the diffusion of heretical ideas in Spain by producing "Indexes" of prohibited books. Such lists of prohibited books were common in Europe a decade before the Inquisition published its first. The first Index published in Spain in 1551 was, in reality, a reprinting of the Index published by the University of Leuven in 1550, with an appendix dedicated to Spanish texts. Subsequent Indexes were published in 1559, 1583, 1612, 1632, and 1640.
Where did the Spanish Inquisition take place?
The "Spanish Inquisition" may be defined broadly, operating in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Naples, and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America.
What did the Inquisition do?
The Inquisition had jurisdiction only over Christians. It had no power to investigate, prosecute, or convict Jews, Muslims, or any open member of other religions. Anyone who was known to identify as either Jew or Muslim was outside of Inquisitorial jurisdiction and could be tried only by the King. All the inquisition could do in some of those cases was to deport the individual according to the King's law, but usually, even that had to go through a civil tribunal. The Inquisition had the authority to try only those who self-identified as Christians (initially for taxation purposes, later to avoid deportation as well) while practicing another religion de facto. Even those were treated as Christians. If they confessed or identified not as "judeizantes" but as fully practicing Jews, they fell back into the previously explained category and could not be targeted, although they would have pleaded guilty to previously lying about being Christian.
How much wealth was confiscated from Jews?
It is unknown exactly how much wealth was confiscated from converted Jews and others tried by the Inquisition. Wealth confiscated in one year of persecution in the small town of Guadaloupe paid the costs of building a royal residence. There are numerous records of the opinion of ordinary Spaniards of the time that "the Inquisition was devised simply to rob people". "They were burnt only for the money they had", a resident of Cuenca averred. "They burn only the well-off", said another. In 1504 an accused stated, "only the rich were burnt". In 1484 Catalina de Zamora was accused of asserting that "this Inquisition that the fathers are carrying out is as much for taking property from the conversos as for defending the faith. It is the goods that are the heretics." This saying passed into common usage in Spain. In 1524 a treasurer informed Charles V that his predecessor had received ten million ducats from the conversos, but the figure is unverified. In 1592 an inquisitor admitted that most of the fifty women he arrested were rich. In 1676, the Suprema claimed it had confiscated over 700,000 ducats for the royal treasury (which was paid money only after the Inquisition's own budget, amounting in one known case to only 5%). The property on Mallorca alone in 1678 was worth "well over 2,500,000 ducats".
Why was the Inquisition created?
The Inquisition may have just been the result of putting these ideas into practice. The use of religion as a unifying factor across a land that was allowed to stay diverse and maintain different laws in other respects, and the creation of the In quisition to enforce laws across it, maintain said religious unity and control the local elites were consistent with most of those teachings.
What was the war of the Alpujarras?
The War of the Alpujarras (1568–71), a general Muslim/Morisco uprising in Granada that expected to aid Ottoman disembarkation in the peninsula, ended in a forced dispersal of about half of the region's Moriscos throughout Castile and Andalusia as well as increased suspicions by Spanish authorities against this community .
Why were false denunciations made?
In practice, false denunciations were frequent. Denunciations were made for a variety of reasons, from genuine concern to rivalries and personal jealousies.
Why did the Inquisition not originate in Spain?
The Inquisition did not originate in Spain and did not originally target Jews. In the 1200s, the Pope established the Holy Inquisition Against Depraved Heresy to deal with breakaway Christian sects. It remained relatively powerless, as secular rulers, suspicious of Papal meddling in their own internal affairs, did not allow it access to their countries. In a period of more than 200 years, very few heretics were burned at the stake. In 1481, however, after extracting a promise from the Pope that the Inquisition would remain under the Crown's control, thus ensuring that confiscated assets of heretics would revert to the throne, Ferdinand and Isabella established the Inquisition in Seville. While it is commonly assumed that the Inquisition was brought to Spain out of a concern that Jews were trying to influence conversos to Defense counsel was allowed, but was virtually impossible to obtain leave the Christian fold, one prominent historian is of the opinion that by 1481 Jewish consciousness was virtually nonexistent among the conversos, and that Jews did not attempt any such outreach. Rather, he believes, the Inquisition was an outgrowth of the attitudes of Spain's Old Christian population. In the words of one Spanish historian, "The Inquisition was a genuine expression of the soul of the Spanish people."
What was the Inquisition?
Rather, he believes, the Inquisition was an outgrowth of the attitudes of Spain's Old Christian population. In the words of one Spanish historian, "The Inquisition was a genuine expression of the soul of the Spanish people.".
What was Torquemada's purpose in the Inquisition?
Therefore, Torquemada needed to create a sensation in order to poison the atmosphere, stir public wrath against the Jews, and force their expulsion. In 1490, the Inquisition fabricated the tale of the Holy Child of La Guardia. Several Jews and conversos were accused of kidnapping a seven-year-old boy in the town of La Guardia and taking him to a cave, cutting out the child's heart, and using it in magical rites designed to overthrow Christian Spain and turn it into a Jewish country. Although no body was ever found, under torture all the defendants admitted to the charges. In late 1491, for the first time unconverted Jews were burned at the stake in a spectacular auto-de-fe, which people traveled many Under torture all the defendants admitted to the charges days to witness. (Before being killed, the Jews were punished spiritually by being excommunicated from the Catholic Church, to which they had never belonged.) Torquemada wasted no time in sending reports of the episode all over Spain, whipping the populace into an even greater anti-Jewish frenzy.
What did Torquemada do to the Jews?
Quickly, Torquemada began taking steps to weaken the unconverted Jewish community and eventually expel it from Spain. In 1485, he forced all rabbis, under pain of death, to report conversos who were practicing Judaism, and to pronounce a rabbinic curse on any Jew who failed to notify the Inquisition of such behavior. This cruel edict badly split the Jews of Spain. Alarmed by the greatly increasing power of the Inquisition, that year a group of conversos plotted to kill the inquisitor of Saragossa, Pedro de Arbues, hoping to begin a popular uprising against the Inquisition. However, the assassination had the opposite effect. The townspeople were enraged, rampaging through the streets, killing many conversos. All the conspirators were caught and executed, and the Inquisition grew even stronger.
What did the Inquisition do to Christians?
The Inquisition publicized signs of heretical behavior for faithful Christians to watch for and report, including changing linens on Friday, buying vegetables before Pesach, blessing children without making the sign of the cross, fasting on Yom Kippur, and refraining from work on the Sabbath.
What happens if an accused faints during interrogation?
If the accused fainted during interrogation, a physician standing nearby revived him; if the official administering the torture caused the victim to die, he was not held responsible. Overall, no person was safe from the clutches of the Inquisition — even children and pregnant women underwent these horrific tortures.
What is the Holy Child of La Guardia?
The myth of the Holy Child of La Guardia entered the history of Spain, where it helped keep anti-Semitism alive for centuries. Missing details of the "Holy Child's" name, age, birthplace, and place of murder were obligingly provided by willing contributors. (The embarrassing lack of a corpse was attributed to the child's body ascending to heaven, along with his soul.) In 1989, a book on the history of Spain quoted the story as justification for the expulsion of the Jews. In 1993, the author Erna Paris visited La Guardia and described what she saw:
Who was the Pope when the Spanish Inquisition began?
Pope Sixtus IV issues the papal bull Exigit sinceras devotionis affectus (”Sincere Devotion Is Required”), which authorizes the creation of the Inquisition in Castile. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile soon spread the Spanish Inquisition throughout their domains.
Who expelling the Moriscos?
Philip III, king of Spain and Portugal, signs a decree expelling the Moriscos from Spain. Approximately 300,000 of them are then forcibly relocated, primarily to North Africa. Contemporary accounts estimate that some 50,000 are killed while resisting expulsion while another 60,000 die before reaching their destinations.
What is Torquemada's purpose in his 28 articles?
Torquemada’s “28 articles” outline the crimes that may be investigated by inquisitors, as well as the methods to be used for interrogation and punishment. Torture and the confiscation of property are treated as matters of routine.
When did the conversos riot?
March 14, 1473. Three days of riots against conversos begin in Córdoba, Castile. City authorities fail in their attempts to check the violence, and eventually they withdraw their protection from the converso community.
When did the Alhambra decree end?
The decree will not be formally rescinded until December 16, 1968, more than 476 years later.
How many articles does Torquemada have?
Torquemada’s “28 articles” outline the crimes that may be investigated by inquisitors, as well as the methods to be used for interrogation and punishment. Torture and the confiscation of property are treated as matters of routine.
What was the Spanish Inquisition?
The Spanish Inquisition was the inquisition in Spain that was state managed to maintain Jewish and Muslim allegiance to the Catholic orthodoxy in the 15th century.
What was the inquisition about?
The inquisition also included the suppression of Moriscos who were the Islam converts that were secretly practicing their religion. In 1502, Muslims were forced to change to Christianity or else they were expelled. Several Muslims were forcibly baptized in 1526. Moriscos, however, did not receive severe persecution as in the case of conversos since it was hard to identify relapsed converts since they guarded their privacy rendering it hard to prove suspicion against them. There were few cases of inquisition concerning Protestants as their number was small in Spain. The punishment of the reported cases was trials and prisoning.
How did the Inquisition start?
The inquisition started when a Dominican friar known as Fray Alonso de Ojeda convinced the then Queen that conversos practiced Judaism secretly. Ferdinand and Isabella asked the Pope Sixtus IV to establish an inquisition of which the pope wanted the inquisitors to be priests who were forty years of age, but Ferdinand appointed one of the rulers from the monarch. The Pope’s approach was more moderate than Ferdinand’s. The inquisition began with the repression of conversos and the expulsion of the Jews. Conversos were not supposed to practice Judaism of which they had already given up. The inquisitors then saw that securing the converts alone was not enough and resorted to expelling those who refused to conform to the orthodoxy. Conversos were tried and persecuted.
What was the Pope's approach to the Inquisition?
The Pope’s approach was more moderate than Ferdinand’s. The inquisition began with the repression of conversos and the expulsion of the Jews. Conversos were not supposed to practice Judaism of which they had already given up.
Why did the Inquisition reprint books?
These printed books were majorly dedicated to spiritual work and the vernacular translation of the Bible.
Did Moriscos get persecution?
Several Muslims were forcibly baptized in 1526. Moriscos, however, did not receive severe persecution as in the case of conversos since it was hard to identify relapsed converts since they guarded their privacy rendering it hard to prove suspicion against them.
What was the Spanish Inquisition known for?
This Inquisition is best known for putting Galileo on trial in 1633. In 1545, the Spanish Index was created, a list of European books considered heretical and forbidden in Spain, based on the Roman Inquisition’s own Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
How long did the Inquisition last?
Beginning in the 12th century and continuing for hundreds of years, the Inquisition is infamous for the severity of its tortures and its persecution of Jews and Muslims. Its worst manifestation was in Spain, where the Spanish Inquisition was a dominant force for more than 200 years, resulting in some 32,000 executions.
What happened in 1481?
A mass exodus of Conversos followed. In 1481, 20,000 Conversos confessed to heresy, hoping to avoid execution. Inquisitors decreed that their penitence required them to name other heretics.
What did Ximenes do to the Inquisition?
As Inquisitor General, Ximenes pursued Muslims into North Africa, encouraging Ferdinand to take military action. Upon seizing African towns, the Inquisition became established there. Ximenes was dismissed in 1517 after pleas from prominent Conversos, but the Inquisition was allowed to continue.
Why was the Inquisition so powerful?
Contents. The Inquisition was a powerful office set up within the Catholic Church to root out and punish heresy throughout Europe and the Americas. Beginning in the 12th century and continuing for hundreds of years, the Inquisition is infamous for the severity of its tortures and its persecution of Jews and Muslims.
What was the purpose of the Tribunal of Castile?
Torquemada. In 1478, under the influence of clergyman Tomas de Torquemada, the monarchs created the Tribunal of Castile to investigate heresy among Conversos. The effort focused on stronger Catholic education for Conversos, but by 1480, the Inquisition was formed.
How many Muslims were forced out of Spain?
From 1609 to 1615, 150,000 Muslims who had converted to Catholicism were forced out of Spain. By the mid-1600s the Inquisition and Catholic dominance had become such an oppressive fact of daily life in Spanish territories that Protestants avoided those places altogether.
What happened during an inquisition?
The arrival of the Spanish Inquisition must have been truly terrifying. Congregations were, at first, encouraged to come before a tribunal voluntarily so that they could confess their heresies, for which they would usually receive lighter punishments. But they were then cajoled or threatened to turn informant on their families, friends and neighbours.
Who did the Spanish Inquisition target?
Originally, the Inquisition was to ensure that those who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism or Islam had done so properly. This regulation intensified after two royal decrees were issued (in 1492 and 1501) ordering Jews and Muslims to choose baptism or exile.
How many hours did the Inquisitor General meet?
The Inquisitor General presided over the six members of the Council of the Suprema. They would meet every morning, as well as an additional two hours, three afternoons a week. Morning sessions addressed faith-related heresies, while afternoons were dedicated to minor heresies, such as sexual offences and bigamy.
What was the most popular torture method?
Women, children, the infirm and the aged were not exempt. A popular torture method was the rack , which would stretch victims, while others involved suspending a person from the ceiling by the wrists. The accused could also be forced to ingest water with a cloth in the mouth, so they felt like were drowning.
How many people were executed in the Inquisition?
There are some, however, who believe that the horrors of the Inquisition have been exaggerated, and that just one per cent of the 125,000 people believed to have been tried were executed.
How many tribunals were there in the Suprema?
Fourteen tribunals fed into the Suprema. These were initially set up in areas where they were deemed to be needed, but were later established in fixed locations.
When a case finally came before a tribunal, the process consisted of a series of hearings during which?
When a case, finally, came before a tribunal, the process consisted of a series of hearings during which both denouncer and defendant gave their version of events.
Civics
Which of the following describes how Spanish explores. Affected Native American cultures in the American southwest A.the Spanish shared their wealth and gold B. The Spanish converted native Americans to Christianity C. The Spanish
Spanish
Which popular physical activity in the Spanish-speaking world would you prefer to participate in? Why? Write you answer using as many Spanish words as possible. What are some Spanish-speaking world activities?
Us History
Which of the following describes how Spanish explorers affected Native American cultures in the American Southwest? A. The Spanish shared their wealth and gold. B. The Spanish converted Native Americans to Christianity. *- My
social studies
What happened when Cortés and his soldiers first arrived in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán? A.The Spanish army became ill with smallpox. B.The Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomed them as guests at first.*** C.The Aztec army
World history
Whih of the following was the most important factor in enabling the Spanish to defeat the Aztec Empire ? A. The Spanish were able to field larger armies than in the Aztecs. B. Spanish tolerance of Aztec religion and culture
science
Which of the following are true about scientific laws? SELECT ALL THAT APPLY 1. They describe something that happened/happens. 2. They can be represented by mathematical equations 3. They explain why something occurs. 4. They are
History
Which accurately describe events leading to the Scientific Revolution? (Select all that apply.) greek rationalism use of logic and reason inspired the scientific revolution the Spanish Inquisition, led by Ferdinand and Isabella,
When was the last inquisition in Spain?
The last inquisitorial act in Spain occurred in 1834 , but all of the Inquisitions continued to have a lasting impact on Catholicism, Christianity and the world as a whole.
Who was tortured by the Spanish Inquisition?
English merchant Nicholas Burton is tortured by officers of the Spanish Inquisition while imprisoned in Cadiz, 1560. He converted several of his fellow prisoners to the Protestant faith before he was martyred at the stake. Torture was used only to get a confession and wasn't meant to actually punish the accused heretic for his crimes.
What torture devices did the heretics use?
These included heated metal pincers, thumbscrews, boots, or other devices designed to burn, pinch or otherwise mutilate their hands, feet or bodily orifices.
What was the method of torture associated with the Inquisition?
The rack was another well-known torture method associated with inquisition. The subject had his hands and feet tied or chained to rollers at one or both ends of a wooden or metal frame.
Why did the inquisitors use torture?
Torture was used only to get a confession and wasn't meant to actually punish the accused heretic for his crimes. Some inquisitors used starvation, forced the accused to consume and hold vast quantities of water or other fluids, or heaped burning coals on parts of their body.
Why did the Inquisition need to extract a confession?
Inquisitors needed to extract a confession because they believed it was their duty to bring the accused back to the faith. A true confession resulted in the accused being forgiven, but he was usually still forced to absolve himself by performing penances, such as pilgrimages or wearing multiple, heavy crosses.
What is strappado torture?
Strappado is a form of torture that began with the Medieval Inquisition. In one version, the hands of the accused were tied behind his back and the rope looped over a brace in the ceiling of the chamber or attached to a pulley. Then the subject was raised until he was hanging from his arms.
Overview
Historiography
How historians and commentators have viewed the Spanish Inquisition has changed over time and continues to be a source of controversy. Before and during the 19th-century historical interest focused on who was being persecuted. In the early and mid 20th century, historians examined the specifics of what happened and how it influenced Spanish history. In the later 20th and 21st century, historians have re-examined how severe the Inquisition really was, calling into question …
Previous Inquisitions
The Inquisition was created through papal bull, Ad Abolendam, issued at the end of the 12th century by Pope Lucius III to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. There were a large number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages through different diplomatic and political means. In the Kingdom of Aragon, a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus of Pope Gregory IX, in 1232, duri…
Creation of the Spanish Inquisition
There are several hypotheses of what prompted the creation of the tribunal after centuries of tolerance (within the context of medieval Europe).
The Spanish Inquisition is interpretable as a response to the multi-religious nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, the Moors controlled large areas of the Iberian Peninsula until 1250; afterwards they were r…
Activity of the Inquisition
Fray Alonso de Ojeda, a Dominican friar from Seville, convinced Queen Isabella of the existence of Crypto-Judaism among Andalusian conversos during her stay in Seville between 1477 and 1478. A report, produced by Pedro González de Mendoza, Archbishop of Seville, and by the Segovian Dominican Tomás de Torquemada – of converso family himself – corroborated this assertion.
Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella requested a papal bull establishing an inquisition in Spai…
Organization
Beyond its role in religious affairs, the Inquisition was also an institution at the service of the monarchy. The Inquisitor General, in charge of the Holy Office, was designated by the crown. The Inquisitor General was the only public office whose authority stretched to all the kingdoms of Spain (including the American viceroyalties), except for a brief period (1507–1518) during which there were t…
Composition of the tribunals
Initially, each of the tribunals included two inquisitors, calificadors (qualifiers), an alguacil (bailiff), and a fiscal (prosecutor); new positions were added as the institution matured. The inquisitors were preferably jurists more than theologians; in 1608 Philip III even stipulated that all inquisitors needed to have a background in law. The inquisitors did not typically remain in the position for …
End of the Inquisition
During the reign of Charles IV of Spain (1788–1808), in spite of the fears that the French Revolution provoked, several events accelerated the decline of the Inquisition. The state stopped being a mere social organizer and began to worry about the well-being of the public. As a result, the land-holding power of the Church was reconsidered, in the señoríos and more generally in the accumulat…
Introduction
Events During The Inquisition
- The inquisition started when a Dominican friar known as Fray Alonso de Ojeda convinced the then Queen that conversos practiced Judaism secretly. Ferdinand and Isabella asked the Pope Sixtus IV to establish an inquisition of which the pope wanted the inquisitors to be priests who were forty years of age, but Ferdinand appointed one of the rulers from the monarch. The Pope’s approach …
Censorship and The Supression of Other Groups
- In order to prevent the spread of different ideas, inquisitors introduced indexes of prohibited books. The inquisition reprinted some books including Spanish religious text in it. These printed books were majorly dedicated to spiritual work and the vernacular translation of the Bible. Other groups that underwent suppression include; witchcrafts of ...
Conclusion
- History and modern literature often cite the Spanish Inquisition as an illustration of Catholic repression and intolerance. However, some of the modern historians have termed the events as exaggerated by the anti-Catholicism waves of the 19th century.