what is homans theory

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What is Homans social exchange theory?

Social exchange theory proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. According to this theory, developed by sociologist George Homans, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships.

What is Homans’s theory of relationships?

According to this theory, developed by sociologist George Homans, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships. When the risks outweigh the rewards, people will terminate or abandon that relationship. Most relationships are made up of a certain amount of give-and-take, but this does not mean that they are always equal.

What is the contribution of John Homans in sociology?

The development there of social exchange theory proved to be influential with several, later theories including rational-choice theory drawing upon it. Homans served as the 54th President of the American Sociological Association and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

What is Homan's theory of group formation?

Homan's Theory. Homan's theory of group formation is based on three elements, namely, activities, interaction and sentiments. According to Homan, these three elements are directly related to each other. The required activities are the assigned tasks to people to work.

What is Homan's theory?

Homans theory, which is an exchange theory, is based on a few propositions about the fundamental actions of individuals, and how values, memory, and expectations affect their behavior.

What are the components of Homans theory?

According to him “ The more activities persons share, the more numerous will be their interactions and the stronger will be their share activities and sentiments and the more sentiments persons have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions.” Thus Homans's theory is based on three ...

What are values according to Homans?

For example, Homans (1964:954) defines value as the amount of work a person will do to get a reward. He also suggests the following proposition: The more valuable to a man the reward he gets from another man or the environment, the more often he will emit the behavior that gets him the reward (Homans, 1961:55).

What are Homan's three principles of community?

He came up with two others, which he referred to as “sentiment” and “activity.” In classifying these three variables—interaction, sentiment, and activity—Homans began the construction of what Henderson had taught him to call a conceptual scheme.

What is Homans theory of group formation?

Homan's Theory: According to George C. Homans, “The more activities persons share, the more numerous will be there interactions and the stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments, and the more sentiments people have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions.”

What are the three group theories?

History. Group theory has three main historical sources: number theory, the theory of algebraic equations, and geometry.

What are Homan's social behavior propositions?

Later, Homans articulated six general propositions, based on behavioral psychology, in explaining elementary forms of social behavior in groups. These are grounded in notions of reward and punishment, deprivation and satiation, cost and profit, and aggression and approval.

What is social exchange theory example?

A simple example of social exchange theory can be seen in the interaction of asking someone out on a date. If the person says yes, you have gained a reward and are likely to repeat the interaction by asking that person out again, or by asking someone else out.

Who is the founder of social exchange theory?

History of social exchange theory Social exchange theory was developed by George Homans, a sociologist. It first appeared in his essay “Social Behavior as Exchange,” in 1958. Homans studied small groups, and he initially believed that any society, community or group was best seen as a social system.

What are the 3 principles of community development?

Community development is fundamentally based on the values of human rights, social justice, equality and respect for diversity. The principles which underpin its practice are: Self-determination - people and communities have the right to make their own choices and decisions.

What are the 5 principles of community?

Community development is a holistic approach grounded in principles of empowerment, human rights, inclusion, social justice, self-determination and collective action (Kenny, 2007).

What are the 3 types of community development?

The three types of communities are rural, urban, and suburban.

What are the theories of group formation?

The four important theories of group formation are (1) Propinquity Theory, (2) Homan's Theory, (3) Balance Theory, and (4) Exchange Theory. 1. Propinquity theory: The propinquity theory of group formation states that individuals form groups due to spatial and geographical nearness.

Why is Social Exchange Theory important?

ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY It tells one how to sustain and keep relationships. It is a timely and systematic approach. The theory is almost applicable in all situations. It helps us to understand that when we give something in any relationship then we expect something in return to maintain the relationship.

Who has given the social exchange theory?

The notion of "social behavior as exchange" was first identified by American sociologist George C. Homans in 1958.

Who gave balance theory?

Balance theory is a sociological construct originated by Fritz Heider that explores relative valence of a range of positive to negative psychosocial relationships among individuals and networks of many such relationships.

What model did Homans use in The Human Group?

In The Human Group, George C. Homans uses the systemic model in examining small groups, which he described as “internal systems” facing “external systems.”.

What did Homans think of Henderson's concept?

Homans was much enthralled with Henderson’s notion of the conceptual scheme as a way of classifying phenomena, and even developed his own for the study of small groups (to be discussed in detail below). Following Pareto, Henderson believed that the subject of interest in sociology—be that a society, a community, or a group—is best conceptualized as a social system. A conceptual scheme of a social system provides the sociologist “with the mental pigeonholes he needs and some notion of the relations between the materials in them, and it will help him to new discovery if he does not let it altogether master his thinking” (Homans 1949: 334). Later in his career and again consistent with Henderson’s directives, Homans eschewed the use of conceptual schemes for the development of theory in the form of propositions.

What is sentiment in psychology?

Sentiment is behaviour expressive of a person’s attitudes toward other persons and includes the “liking and disliking for individuals, approval and disapproval of the things they do” (Homans 1947: 14). Not sentiments themselves, but their manifestations—“in facial expression, in bodily attitudes, above all, in what people say”—can be observed and subsequently measured. Activity refers to any action that people perform that may not require interactions with others or express interpersonal sentiments. Many such activities can be operationalized and measured; for example, as in the case of “output,” the numbers of a particular object a factory worker produces in the course of an hour or day. Finally, and again in line with Henderson (and Pareto), George C. Homans argued that the three classes of variables were interdependent.

Which psychologists were superior to the Human Group?

In his next major work, Social Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms, which George C. Homans considered superior to The Human Group because it is the more general, ambitious, and systematic of the two, he brought together all these previous efforts in achieving his next goal: to articulate specific propositions, based on the principles of behavioural psychology, in explaining the “sub-institutional,” or elementary forms of social behaviour in small groups. This new approach to the explanation of social behaviour first appeared in Homans’s influential paper, “Social Behaviour as Exchange” (1958).

What is the systemic model of the human group?

In The Human Group, George C. Homans uses the systemic model in examining small groups, which he described as “internal systems” facing “external systems.” The ultimate goal for the sociologist, according to Homans, was to “move from a study of the social system as it is exemplified in single groups toward a study of the system as it is exemplified in many groups, including groups changing in time” (1949: 336). But by the late 1950s Homans came slowly to the conclusion that human social systems were much less organic than what he had previously believed. From that point on he all but abandoned the idea of the social system.

When did Homans and Skinner meet?

Homans first met and became friends with Skinner when their terms in the elite Harvard Society of Fellows overlapped, 1934-36. When Skinner returned to Harvard after World War II as Professor of Psychology, their friendship revived.

Where was George Homans born?

George Caspar Homans (1910-1989) was born in the prosperous Back Bay district of Boston, Massachusetts. On his mother’s side, he was sixth generation in the lineage of that distinguished family, the Adamses of American statesmanship and literature, which includes John Adams, second president of the United States.

What are the elements of Homan's theory?

Homan's Theory. Homan's theory of group formation is based on three elements, namely, activities, interaction and sentiments. According to Homan, these three elements are directly related to each other. The required activities are the assigned tasks to people to work.

Why do Rao and Barman form a relationship?

Rao and Barman form relationship because of their common attitudes and values. They try to maintain a symmetrical relationship between the attraction and common attitudes and values. As and when, their relationship becomes unbalanced, both try to restore balance.

What are the assumptions of social exchange theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

The theory’s core assumptions establish a fundamental foundation within social exchange theory — one size does not fit all. A person’s expectations, as set by comparison levels, allow the theory to be viewed on a sliding scale, one that adjusts on an individual basis. If an individual’s personal relationship samples are set on a certain level, he or she will tend to use this level as a baseline for future relationships.

What is the third assumption of the payoff theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

A third assumption is that individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging. Finally, the theory assumes that people know that this “payoff” will vary from person to person, as well as with the same person over time.

What is the most known commodity in the theory of expectation?from socialwork.tulane.edu

These levels of expectation can often work in conjunction with another core concept of the theory’s functionality: costs vs. benefits. This is perhaps the theory’s most known commodity, as it establishes a “give and take” metric that can be analyzed to determine how much effort one party may be putting into the relationship.

What are the assumptions of social exchange theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

The theory’s core assumptions establish a fundamental foundation within social exchange theory — one size does not fit all. A person’s expectations, as set by comparison levels, allow the theory to be viewed on a sliding scale, one that adjusts on an individual basis. If an individual’s personal relationship samples are set on a certain level, he or she will tend to use this level as a baseline for future relationships.

What is the world system theory?from sciencedirect.com

World Systems Theory (WST), developed by the political economist Immanuel Wallerstein, is a theory of the spread of capitalism. It explores the structural linkages between First and Third Worlds such that development in one area generates underdevelopment in another. The central process is one of exploitation as nation state cores extract goods from peripheries and redistribute them according to specific rules of allocation. This process is both dynamic and complex since the status of the cores may fluctuate over time, resulting in unstable and changing boundaries. WST has been especially attractive to archaeologists because of the scale at which it operates. It places cultural entities within their larger, historical, political, and economic contexts and is sensitive to the spatial dynamics of control. Archaeologists have been sharply critical of Wallerstein's premodern and modern distinction and argued that its applicability needs to be fully explored in particular cases of State formation with special attention paid to the units of analysis (Stein 1999 ).

What is petty tyranny based on?from sciencedirect.com

By comparison, Ashforth (1994) proposed a model of petty tyranny based on antecedents and effects. He maintained that petty tyranny results from an interaction of the predispositions of superordinates (i.e., beliefs about the organization, such as believing that it is a bureaucratic one), beliefs about subordinates (e.g., in the theory X approach, superordinates believe that the average person dislikes work, lacks ambition, requires direction, and is resistant to change; such beliefs often lead to a close, coercive leadership style ( McGregor, 1960 )), and situational facilitators (i.e., macro-level factors, such as institutional values and norms, and micro-level factors, such as power). Ashforth hypothesized that such antecedents interact to produce petty tyranny (e.g., arbitrariness and self-aggrandizement, belittling subordinates, lack of consideration, and noncontingent punishment). This approach to leadership causes low leader endorsement; high frustration, stress, and reactance; high helplessness and work alienation; poor work performance; and low work-unit cohesiveness. Ashforth described feedback loops that connect the effects of tyranny with its antecedents and behavior. Subordinate alienation, for example, may enhance negative dispositions toward subordinates (an antecedent) and increase the likelihood of greater use of coercion (behavior). More important, subsequent research by Ashforth (1997) suggested that petty tyranny may be accurately described as a gestalt (i.e., syndrome), a set of mutually reinforcing individual dispositions, situational facilitators, leader behaviors, and subordinate effects that interact to create a coherent cluster.

What is the third assumption of the payoff theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

A third assumption is that individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging. Finally, the theory assumes that people know that this “payoff” will vary from person to person, as well as with the same person over time.

What is the most known commodity in the theory of expectation?from socialwork.tulane.edu

These levels of expectation can often work in conjunction with another core concept of the theory’s functionality: costs vs. benefits. This is perhaps the theory’s most known commodity, as it establishes a “give and take” metric that can be analyzed to determine how much effort one party may be putting into the relationship.

What is transformational approach?from sciencedirect.com

Transformationalist approaches regard the roots of culture change as internal to society. Some of these approaches borrow liberally from versions of Marxism and the development of society is assumed to occur through the unity of opposites in a dialectical process. Others have taken a political economic perspective, closer to classical economics, that has emphasized competition and finance systems in the emergence of political institutions.

What is the dual concern model?from sciencedirect.com

People's adherence to relationships over merely self-serving outcomes appears in the dual-concern model (Pruitt and Carnevalle): bargaining elicits both own-concern and other-concern. People also evaluate outcomes by procedural justice; that is, whether the process itself was fair (Thibaut and Walker, Lind and Tyler). Institutions and authorities especially are evaluated according to procedural justice, thereby eliciting loyalty or anger.

What are the assumptions of social exchange theory?

The theory’s core assumptions establish a fundamental foundation within social exchange theory — one size does not fit all. A person’s expectations, as set by comparison levels, allow the theory to be viewed on a sliding scale, one that adjusts on an individual basis. If an individual’s personal relationship samples are set on a certain level, he or she will tend to use this level as a baseline for future relationships.

What is the third assumption of the payoff theory?

A third assumption is that individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging. Finally, the theory assumes that people know that this “payoff” will vary from person to person, as well as with the same person over time.

What is the most known commodity in the theory of expectation?

These levels of expectation can often work in conjunction with another core concept of the theory’s functionality: costs vs. benefits. This is perhaps the theory’s most known commodity, as it establishes a “give and take” metric that can be analyzed to determine how much effort one party may be putting into the relationship.

How does the theory of balance work?

The theory is fairly simple, allowing most people to understand its general assumptions and relate to them. When a person becomes knowledgeable of this theory, he or she can work towards having more balanced relationships. This knowledge can also provide awareness of what one’s own costs are to other people.

Who was the first to discover the theory of social exchange?

Sociologist George Homans (1961 ) and Peter Blau were the first to find out the theory of social exchange theory in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

What is the purpose of social exchange theory?

The basic purpose of exchange theory is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. In sociology, social exchange theory is a very major theoretical perspective

What was Blau's work influenced by?

Blau’s work was very much influenced by that of Homans. His focus was merely future-oriented. He was the one to motivate theorists to look forward. He thought if people will think too much about the returns that they will be getting as a reward then they won’t be able to learn the developing aspects of the social exchange.

Is the theory of a symbiotic relationship timely?

It is a timely and systematic approach. The theory is almost applicable in all situations.

What are the assumptions of social exchange theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

The theory’s core assumptions establish a fundamental foundation within social exchange theory — one size does not fit all. A person’s expectations, as set by comparison levels, allow the theory to be viewed on a sliding scale, one that adjusts on an individual basis. If an individual’s personal relationship samples are set on a certain level, he or she will tend to use this level as a baseline for future relationships.

Who developed the theory of marriage?from sciencedirect.com

The theory of marriage developed by Gary Becker (1973) predicts exchange on some characteristics but matching on others. He conceptualized households as small firms producing ‘commodities’ such as children, health, companionship, food, and clean clothes.

What is the third assumption of the payoff theory?from socialwork.tulane.edu

A third assumption is that individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging. Finally, the theory assumes that people know that this “payoff” will vary from person to person, as well as with the same person over time.

What is the most known commodity in the theory of expectation?from socialwork.tulane.edu

These levels of expectation can often work in conjunction with another core concept of the theory’s functionality: costs vs. benefits. This is perhaps the theory’s most known commodity, as it establishes a “give and take” metric that can be analyzed to determine how much effort one party may be putting into the relationship.

What are the two exchange-based approaches of the psychological contract and social exchange theory?from sciencedirect.com

The two exchange-based approaches of the psychological contract and social exchange theory have also been used to explain different attitudes and behaviors across work statuses. It has been argued that there are a number of factors that affect the exchange of contributions for inducements across part-time and full-time employees. For example, part-time employees receive fewer inducements such as benefits, task variety, and opportunities for advancement; part-time employees have lower expectations about what they should get from the organization; and part-time employees are more likely to be subject to “Theory X”-type management. These factors will have the effect of creating a perception of perceived inequity or psychological contract violation across work statuses, and they are more likely to lead to part-time employees developing economic relationships, rather than social exchange relationships, with employers. This, in turn, will affect outcome attitude and behaviors such as job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.

What are the theoretical and empirical developments of sociology?from sciencedirect.com

Theoretical and empirical developments include the extension of their work to the analysis of power and dependence, social networks, reciprocity, fairness, social cohesion, and solidarity. The work on social exchange in sociology has clear links to research on social capital, particularly work on networks, norms, and trust.

What motivated the earliest frameworks for persuasive communication?from sciencedirect.com

Incentives motivated the earliest frameworks for persuasive communication (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley), as well as more recent principles of compliance involving scarcity (Cialdini) as a threat to control over outcomes.

Intellectual Influences

Examining Small Groups

• George C. Homans’s great conviction was that sociology begin its analysis from the observed behaviour of individuals, and not from roles, structures, institutions, and other abstractions. This is not to say that the latter are not real only that they are created by individuals. For Homans, explaining how individuals create and maintain social struc...

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The Human Group

Social Behaviour

Conclusion

Further Reading and References