What is the difference between local and stimulus enhancement?
The former would represent stimulus enhancement, whereby conspecific presence at an object attracts an individual to all other objects of that type (Spence 1937 ), while the latter would imply local enhancement , whereby conspecific presence attracts individual to a particular location (Thorpe 1956; Heyes et al. 2000 ).
What is an example of stimulus enhancement?
From this perspective, stimulus enhancement may sensitize or habituate a response to a stimulus following an observer's interaction with a stimulus. For example, Heyes et al. (2000) found that rats observing conspecifics pressing a lever increased the probability of the observer interacting with that lever.
What is stimulus enhancement in visual perception?
Stimulus enhancement, such as object movements, directs the attention of the observer to an object, increasing the chance that observers manually explore that object and discover its affordances thereafter (see Fritz et al., 2000;Galef, 2013; Heyes et al., 2000; Hopper, 2010;Hoppitt & Laland, 2013).
What is a stimulus?
Understanding the term “stimulus” or its plural “stimuli” is the key to answering all of these issues. In biology, a stimulus is defined as a “detectable change (physical or chemical) in an organism’s environment that results in some functional activity.”
What is an example of stimulus enhancement?
Stimulus enhancement may also play a role in mate-choice copying by animals (Dugatkin 1996; Galef et al. 2008). For example, female guppies that see a demonstrator or model female in the presence of a courting male will prefer that male over an alternative male (Dugatkin 1992; Dugatkin and Godin 1992).
What is meant by local enhancement?
Local enhancement is an underexplored social learning mechanism that is often observed in organisms that live in groups. This mechanism occurs when individuals are attracted to areas where conspecifics have previ- ously been, but which are not present when the animal actually moves into the area.
What is an example of social learning in animals?
Animals learn from others. This phenomenon, termed 'social learning', is well established across numerous taxa and contexts, from fish learning mating sites by following others, to meerkats ( Suricata suricatta) teaching pups to handle scorpions 1– 5.
What is true imitation?
True imitation has been defined as "the copying of a novel or otherwise improbable act or utterance, or some act for which there is clearly no instinctive tendency" (Thorpe, 1963, p.
What is an example of an enhancement?
An enhancement makes something better. An enhancement to your recipe makes it taste better. An enhancement to your outfit makes it look snappier. An enhancement to your camera lens makes it take clearer photos.
What is enhancement process?
Here are the steps to model enhancement: Analyze the process data. Identify optimization potentials (process discovery, conformance checking). Adapt the target process model (model enhancement). Implement the target process model.
What are the three types of social learning?
Psychologists following Bandura have stated that social learning based on observation is a complex process that involves three stages: exposure to the responses of others; acquisition of what an individual sees; and subsequent acceptance of the modeled acts as a guide for one's own behaviour.
What are the four types of social learning?
These four concrete stages of social learning within social learning theory include attention, retention and memory, initiation and motor behavior, and motivation.
What are the two types of social learning?
Social Skills Training From this perspective, social behavior is the result of two types of learning: observational learning and reinforced learning.
What are the two types of imitation?
There are two types of theories of imitation, transformational and associative.
How does stimulus enhancement differ from true imitation?
Stimulus enhancement deals with directing attention to a particular place or object, making it more likely that the observer will approach that place or object. This differs from true imitation because the particular stimulus that is performing the behavior is important for the observers to actually attempt it.
What is invisible imitation?
Invisible or Opaque Imitation A term used to refer to a particular kind of imitation in which the behavior of the model and imitative response cannot be perceived within the same modality. Facial imitation qualifies: Although the actor can see the model's face, she cannot see her own face. It remains invisible.
What is local enhancement in image processing?
Local Enhancement essentially takes into consideration the local properties of the image by moving a window/mask throughout. the image from pixel to pixel. The histogram of the points in the window is calculated and then a histogram equilization transfer.
What is local contrast enhancement?
Local contrast enhancement attempts to increase the appearance of large-scale light-dark transitions, similar to how sharpening with an "unsharp mask" increases the appearance of small-scale edges.
What does local contrast mean?
Small scale or “local contrast” is that between much smaller adjacent areas in the image. Improve this and you've made the shadow and highlight areas (where contrast is most compressed) appear broader.
What is an enhancement in real estate?
Real estate photo enhancement gives an impression of bigger spaces –impressions of a large space engage people to look deeper into the property's details.
How does social learning affect animals?
Social learning can result in the social transmission of information through a population, resulting in homogeneity of behavior that extends beyond the period of interaction. Examples include: the spread of foraging skills or vocalizations through vertebrate populations. A classification of social learning processes is presented. Imitation is among the most contentious of social learning processes. Observational conditioning involves the formation of an S–S association, whereas contextual imitation involves the formation of an S–R association between the contextual stimulus and the observed response. If an observer could learn R–S contingencies through observation, it could potentially learn what not to do in a specific context, as a result of watching other animals make mistakes. Observational R–S learning could be combined with production imitation to ensure that an observer disproportionately acquires novel action sequences that it sees being rewarded. The evidence needed to isolate each of the social learning processes is also discussed in the chapter.
How does social learning work?
There is growing evidence that animals selectively employ ‘social learning strategies' , which determine e.g. when to copy others instead of learning asocially and whom to copy. Furthermore, once animals have acquired new information, e.g. regarding profitable resources, it is beneficial for them to commit it to long-term memory (LTM), especially if it allows access to profitable resources in the future. Research into social learning strategies and LTM has covered a wide range of taxa. However, otters (subfamily Lutrinae), popular in zoos due to their social nature and playfulness, remained neglected until a recent study provided evidence of social learning in captive smooth-coated otters ( Lutrogale perspicillata ), but not in Asian short-clawed otters ( Aonyx cinereus ). We investigated Asian short-clawed otters' learning strategies and LTM performance in a foraging context. We presented novel extractive foraging tasks twice to captive family groups and used network-based diffusion analysis to provide evidence of a capacity for social learning and LTM in this species. A major cause of wild Asian short-clawed otter declines is prey scarcity. Furthering our understanding of how they learn about and remember novel food sources could inform key conservation strategies.
How do socially living animals cope with the environment?
Socially living animals have to cope with a highly unpredictable and complex environment in which the individuals compete for limited resources . In most social groups the access to these resources is regulated by a dominance hierarchy established through repeated agonistic interactions. The more dominant and higher ranking an individual the better its resource holding potential. Social living involves not only agonistic relationships but also friendships between affiliated individuals and often also relationships between kin. These diverse social dynamics can influence information transmission between individuals and also social learning like local and stimulus enhancement. I tested positive effects of social dynamics on object manipulation in a social living bird species, the Goffin cockatoo (Cacatua goffini). Using observational data I first calculated a dominance hierarchy and affiliated relationships and then test dyads of dominant, affiliated and akin pairs in a simple choice task using different object sets. My results show, that dominance hierarchy is highly linear, with males at higher ranks than females. No social learning, neither on individual nor on group level irrespective of the social condition (dominance, affiliated or akin) could be detected. However, subjects showed a significant side bias and strong individual preferences for particular objects. My results on dominance hierarchy and its effects on behaviour are so far in accordance with what has been found in other avian species. Contrary to previous studies on birds, the current lack of social learning suggests that at least in this species social learning seems rather unimportant. Furthermore, individual preferences seem to overpower the social influence of a demonstrating individual. However, further investigation is necessary to ensure if this is a general finding or based on the methodology used in this study.
How does social foraging improve foraging efficiency?
Social foraging is suggested to increase foraging efficiency, as individuals might benefit from public information acquired by monitoring the foraging activities of other group members. We conducted a series experiments with captive common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to investigate to what extent marmosets utilize social information about food location when foraging simultaneously with conspecifics. Subjects were confronted with dominant and subordinate demonstrators in three experiments which differed in the amount of information about food location available to the demonstrators. In all three experiments, the focal subjects' performance in the social condition was not enhanced in comparison to a non-social control condition. Because we could rule out kleptoparasitism and aggressive displacements as explanations, we argue that the subjects' tendency for scramble competition by avoiding others and dispersing over the foraging area seems to inhibit or mask the acquisition of social information about the location of rewarded patches.
What is social learning among hunter-gatherers?
Social learning among hunter-gatherers has been widely discussed in the literature and authors often draw on ethnographic cases to support theoretical models. In this study we report on the cross-cultural occurrence of various modes and processes of social learning in distinct cultural domains from the ethnographic record. To our knowledge this is the first systematic, cross-cultural study of hunter-gatherer social learning. We rely on the sample of hunter-gatherers in the electronic Human Relations Area Files (eHRAF) to generate our source of ethnographic texts. We have coded and analyzed 982 ethnographic texts from 23 diverse societies. Oblique and vertical transmission appear at similar rates. Various forms of teaching are the most common processes of social learning and account for more than half of all coded texts. Vertical and oblique social learning are predominantly characterized by teaching, whereas horizontal social learning is primarily through collaborative learning. Approximations of age reveal a general developmental pattern in which social learning of miscellaneous skills characterizes infancy, subsistence skills dominate early and middle childhood, and the social learning of religious beliefs are most frequent during adolescence. Across development we identify a reduction in the importance of vertical transmission in favor of oblique transmission, for subsistence skills in particular. These results highlight the importance of teaching in the ethnographic record of hunter-gatherer social learning and provide a systematic, cross-cultural, framework for theoretical models to rely on.
How do infants use social information?
From a perceptual learning perspective, infants use social information (like gaze direction ) in a similar way as other information in our physical environment (like object movements) to specify action possibilities. In the current study, we assumed that infants are able to learn an affordance upon observing an adult failing to act out that affordance, without appreciating object-directed intentions, or, communicative intent towards the infant. Using a variation of the Re-enactment procedure, we found that when the attention of infants (N = 46, Mage = 20 months) was drawn towards the eyes of the person before she acted out the failed attempt, either by ostensive cues or non-ostensive cues, infants achieved more affordances than 15 when their attention was not directed towards the eyes. As directing the attention of infants to the eyes of another person frequently results in gaze following, this suggests that infants use the gaze direction of another person in order to learn what affordance that other person is trying to realize. In addition, the results of a spatiotemporal analysis on the eye-movements of infants suggest that the gaze and the object movements of the person facilitate learning by directing the attention of infants towards important object-directed actions on crucial moments during the failed attempt demonstrations. These results are discussed in terms of perceptual attunement and affordance learning.
What is local enhancement in bumblebees?
Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) are attracted to those particular inflorescences where other bees are already foraging, a process known as local enhancement. Here, we use a quantitative analysis of learning in a foraging task to illustrate that this attraction can lead bees to learn more quickly which flower species are rewarding if they forage in the company of experienced conspecifics. This effect can also be elicited by model bees, rather than live demonstrators. We also show that local enhancement in bumblebees most likely reflects a general attraction to conspecifics that is not limited to a foraging context. Based on the widespread occurrence of both local enhancement and associative learning in the invertebrates, we suggest that social influences on learning in this group may be more common than the current literature would suggest and that invertebrates may provide a useful model for understanding how learning processes based on social information evolve.
What is the term for the activity of the mind?
Human behaviour researchers frequently use the term stimulus (or its plural, stimuli ). Stimuli are activities, behaviours, or processes that elicit a response from the human mind in psychology. Visual, auditory, tactile, or a combination of these stimuli may be used. The use of stimuli in the therapy of achluophobia is one example (fear of the dark).
What are some examples of stimuli in animals?
The sight of another animal (particularly predators), which causes them to flee or fight, is an example of stimulation in animals. Animals’ instinctive reactions to stimuli account for the majority of their responses. When motivated by danger, an ostrich can sprint at speeds of up to 70 kilometres per hour. Dogs may be taught to respond to commands like sit, stand, eat, and so on. The dog perceives the human voice as a stimulus and behaves appropriately.
What is internal stimulus?
Internal stimulation comes from within the organism, as the term indicates. Hunger, for example, is an internal stimulus that indicates a lack of energy in the body. It encourages us to consume food in order to recover lost energy.
What are the two primary forms of stimuli?
The exterior stimulus and the interior stimulus are the two primary forms of stimuli. Any sort of response to a stimuli is either learnt or instinctive in nature. A deer, for example, will escape if it sees a predator, but a human response may be anything from hiding to driving away in a car to shooting a gunshot. All of these answers were learnt, whereas the deer’s behaviour was intuitive.
What is a stimulus in biology?
In biology, a stimulus is defined as a “detectable change (physical or chemical) in an organism’s environment that results in some functional activity.” Sunlight, for example, works as a stimulant for plants, causing them to grow or migrate towards it. High temperatures, for example, activate (stimulate) the sweat system in our bodies, causing our bodies to cool down as a result.
What is the internal physical and chemical equilibrium of separate circumstances that a mammal’s body maintains in order?
Homeostasis is the internal physical and chemical equilibrium of separate circumstances that a mammal’s body maintains in order to stay alive. Blood levels, nutrition levels, temperature, and other factors are examples of homeostasis. A change in internal circumstances that is detected by a multitude of receptors is the stimulus for homeostasis.
What determines whether or not a nerve fibre fires?
The stimulus’s intensity determines whether or not a nerve fibre fires. If a particular threshold is achieved, the stimulus will have an effect. The neurons will not communicate any data to the brain if they fall below that threshold.
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