Behaviorism Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to the understanding of human and animal behavior. It assumes that the behavior of a human or an animal is a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli.Behaviorism
What is behaviorism theory in psychology?
Updated August 01, 2019. Behaviorism is the theory that human or animal psychology can be objectively studied through observable actions (behaviors.) This field of study came about as a reaction to 19th-century psychology, which used self-examination of one’s thoughts and feelings to examine human and animal psychology.
What are the basic assumptions of behaviorism?
Basic Assumptions. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory').
What is the behaviorist view of thinking?
While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured. Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).
What is a behaviorist?
A behaviorist, so understood, is someone who demands behavioral evidence for any psychological hypothesis. For such a person, there is no knowable difference between two states of mind (beliefs, desires, etc.) unless there is a demonstrable difference in the behavior associated with each state.
What is defined as behaviorism?
Definition of behaviorism : a school of psychology that takes the objective evidence of behavior (such as measured responses to stimuli) as the only concern of its research and the only basis of its theory without reference to conscious experience — compare introspectionism.
What is a good example of behaviorism?
An example of behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or certain students with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the week. The same concept is used with punishments.
Which of the following statement is true of behaviorists?
Which of the following statements is true of behaviorists? They emphasize the scientific study of observable behavioral responses.
What are the two types of behaviorism?
There are two main types of behaviorism: methodological behaviorism, which was heavily influenced by John B. Watson's work, and radical behaviorism, which was pioneered by psychologist B.F. Skinner.
What is the main goal of behaviorism?
Behaviorism is an area of psychological study that focuses on observing and analyzing how controlled environmental changes affect behavior. The goal of behavioristic teaching methods is to manipulate the environment of a subject — a human or an animal — in an effort to change the subject's observable behavior.
What is the importance of behaviorism?
Behaviourist pedagogy, or behaviourism, looks at the observable actions of students and assesses whether they are learning as effectively as possible. The central belief of a behaviourist is that students learn through reinforcement - constant feedback that tells them whether what they are doing is right or wrong.
Who defined behaviorism?
John B. Watsonn. an approach to psychology, formulated in 1913 by John B. Watson , based on the study of objective, observable facts rather than subjective, qualitative processes, such as feelings, motives, and consciousness.
What is true about behavioral measures?
Which of the following is true of behavioral measures? Behavioral measures involve the systematic observation of people's actions either in their normal environment or in a laboratory setting.
What is behaviorism by Skinner?
Skinner's ABCs of Behaviorism Skinner's theory of learning says that a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement). This, ultimately, is what conditions our behaviors.
What are the key elements of behaviorism?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two major components of behaviorism.
What are the key terms of behaviorism?
Key Terms. Behaviorism: A theory and school of thought in psychology which states that all types of human behavior can be learned through two key types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
What are the 3 types of behaviorism?
There are three types of behaviorism:Methodological= behavior should be studied without connection to mental states (just behavior)Psychological= Human and animal behavior is explained based on external, physical stimuli. ... Analytical/Logical=Certain behaviors will arise from particular mental states and beliefs.
What are the examples of Behavioural?
What are the examples of behavioural skills? The major behavioural skills you must imbibe are Time Management, Communication skills, Patience, Self-improvement, Emotional Intelligence, Self-confidence and Work and life balance.
What are 3 examples of behavioral traits?
Personality traits such as introversion, friendliness, conscientiousness, honesty, and helpfulness are important because they help explain consistencies in behaviour. The most popular way of measuring traits is by administering personality tests on which people self-report about their own characteristics.
What are three examples of behaviors?
Three fundamental types of behaviour can be distinguished: the purely practical, the theoretical-practical, and the purely theoretical. These three types of behaviour have three different reasons: the first a determining reason, the second a motivating reason, and the third a supporting reason.
What is an example of behavioral in psychology?
Behaviorists believe that all behaviors are learned through a process called conditioning, whereby an external stimulus or “condition” causes a behavioral reaction. For example, a professor may use a reward system to incentivize students' learning.
Who first came up with behaviorism?
An American psychologist named John B. Watson, born in 1898, is considered the “father” of behaviorism. Watson primarily studied animal behavior...
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which the repeated pairing of two stimuli will cause an organism to respond to one stimulus as if t...
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism modifies its behavior in response to repeated rewards or punishments. A child who t...
What is the difference between methodological behaviorism and radical behaviorism?
“Methodological behaviorism,” credited to John Watson, argues that because only external behaviors can be observed, they are all that should be mea...
Does punishment help teach good behavior?
Behaviorism does not suggest that negative consequences necessarily promote desired behavior—rather, they teach the organism to avoid undesired b...
What was the Little Albert experiment?
The “Little Albert” experiment was an early-20th-century behaviorist study in which an infant (dubbed “Albert”) was conditioned to fear certain a...
Where is behaviorism used today?
Behaviorist principles are sometimes used today to treat mental health challenges, such as phobias or PTSD ; exposure therapy , for example, aims...
Can behaviorism be useful during therapy?
Many modern therapies, such as behavior therapy or exposure therapy, rely in part on behaviorist techniques. Behavior therapy, for example, makes u...
Can teachers use behaviorism to help students master skills?
Because behaviorism suggests that learning happens primarily via conditioning, behavioral approaches to teaching make use of rewards and punishment...
What is the theory of behaviorism?
One assumption of the learning approach is that all behaviors are learnt from the environment. They can be learnt through classical conditioning, l...
What is behaviorism with an example?
An example of behaviorism is using systematic desensitisation in the treatment of phobias. The individual with the phobia is taught relaxation tech...
How behaviorism is used in the classroom?
In the conventional learning situation, behaviorist pedagogy applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning con...
What is the difference between psychological behaviorism and methodological behaviorism?
Mental states are private entities which, given the necessary publicity of science, do not form proper objects of empirical study. Methodological behaviorism is a dominant theme in the writings of John Watson (1878–1958). Psychological behaviorism is a research program within psychology.
Why is Skinner given special attention?
Skinner is given special (not exclusive) attention because he is the behaviorist who has received the most attention from philosophers, fellow scientists and the public at large. General lessons can also be learned from Skinner about the conduct of behavioral science in general. The entry describes those lessons. 1.
Why has behaviorism declined?
Why has the influence of behaviorism declined? The deepest and most complex reason for behaviorism’s decline in influence is its commitment to the thesis that behavior can be explained without reference to non-behavioral and inner mental (cognitive, representational, or interpretative) activity. Behavior, for Skinner, can be explained just by reference to its “functional” (Skinner’s term) relation to or co-variation with the environment and to the animal’s history of environmental interaction. Neurophysiological and neurobiological conditions, for Skinner, sustain or implement these functional or causal relations. But they do not serve as ultimate or independent sources or explanations of behavior. Behavior, Skinner (1953) wrote, cannot be accounted for “while staying wholly inside [an animal]; eventually we must turn to forces operating upon the organism from without.” “Unless there is a weak spot in our causal chain so that the second [neurological] link is not lawfully determined by the first [environmental stimuli], or the third [behavior] by the second, the first and third links must be lawfully related.” (p. 35) “Valid information about the second link may throw light on this relationship but can in no way alter it.” (ibid.) It is “external variables of which behavior is a function.” (ibid.)
Why am I not a cognitive psychologist?
Skinner began the paper by stating that “the variables of which human behavior is a function lie in the environment” (p. 1). Skinner ended by remarking that “cognitive constructs give … a misleading account of what” is inside a human being (p. 10)
When mental terminology cannot be eliminated, it can be translated into behavior?
In Verbal Behavior (1957) and elsewhere, Skinner tries to show how mental terms can be given behavioral interpretations. In About Behaviorism (1974) he says that when mental terminology cannot be eliminated it can be “translated into behavior” (p. 18, Skinner brackets the expression with his own double quotes).
What is methodological behaviorism?
Methodological behaviorism is a normative theory about the scientific conduct of psychology. It claims that psychology should concern itself with the behavior of organisms (human and nonhuman animals). Psychology should not concern itself with mental states or events or with constructing internal information processing accounts of behavior. According to methodological behaviorism, reference to mental states, such as an animal’s beliefs or desires, adds nothing to what psychology can and should understand about the sources of behavior. Mental states are private entities which, given the necessary publicity of science, do not form proper objects of empirical study. Methodological behaviorism is a dominant theme in the writings of John Watson (1878–1958).
What is the goal of behaviorism?
It has sometimes been said that “behave is what organisms do.”. Behaviorism is built on this assumption, and its goal is to promote the scientific study of behavior. The behavior, in particular, of individual organisms. Not of social groups. Not of cultures.
Why is behaviorism considered a classical theory?
Because behaviorism focuses on observable behavioral outputs, classical behaviorists argue that any task or behavior can be modified with the right conditioning, regardless of individual traits and thinking patterns. That conditioning may be neutral or may include consequences, such as rewards or punishments.
Why is behaviorism important?
One reason behaviorism rose to prominence in the 1920s is that it implies human behavior is predictable. People often expect, or hope, that others will behave in a predictable fashion, even if that isn’t always the case. On a social level, behavioral predictability builds confidenceand trust—and behaviors and attitudes that deviate too far from the established norm or that are erratic and unpredictable are often considered unacceptable. Thus, the idea that one can predict how another person will behave or elicit a standard response using operant conditioning was enticing to generations of psychologists. And though behaviorism is no longer a dominant school of thought in psychology, it hasn’t been entirely discounted—many modern approaches incorporate behaviorist elements with some success.
What is behaviorist therapy?
Behaviorist principles are sometimes used today to treat mental health challenges, such as phobias or PTSD; exposure therapy, for example, aims to weaken conditioned responses to certain feared stimuli. Applied behavior analysis (ABA), a therapy used to treat autism, is based on behaviorist principles. Behaviorism also shows up in organizational psychology, particularly in the use of rewards and punishments to modify employee behavior.
When did behaviorism start to decline?
Behaviorism began to decline in popularity when cognitive psychology, which prioritizes the study of internal mental processes such as attentionand memory, started to gain steam in the 1960s. Psychologists of the time were frustrated by the limits of behaviorism and felt that it was unable to truly explain the complex realities of human behavior. An influential critique by linguist Noam Chomskyis credited with dismantling much of behaviorism’s influence.
What are the criticisms of behaviorism?
Among the most common criticisms of behaviorism are that it is reductionist and that it ignores the complexity of human thought and emotion, as well as the possibility of free will. Some modern applications of behaviorism—most notably applied behavior analysis—have been criticized for modifying behavior at the expense of personal agency; some have suggested that the use of behaviorist techniques to treat autism, in particular, can be harmful.
What was the Little Albert experiment?
The “Little Albert” experiment was an early-20th-century behaviorist study in which an infant (dubbed “Albert”) was conditioned to fearcertain animals and objects—such as a rat, a white rabbit, and a Santa Claus mask —because each was paired with a loud, frightening sound. The experiment is now considered unethical because the researchers did not attempt to “decondition” the infant afterward, potentially leaving him with lasting fears of harmless objects; some experts also speculate that “Albert’s” mother was coerced into participating. Though several historians have claimed to have discovered the identityof “Albert,” the child’s true identity—and the aftereffects of the study—remain debated.
What is the term for a form of learning in which an organism modifies its behavior in response to repeated rewards or?
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism modifies its behavior in response to repeated rewards or punishments. A child who touches a hot stove, for example, will be burned; that negative consequence will likely lead them to avoid touching hot stoves in the future.
How do behaviorists learn?
Behaviorists believe humans learn behaviors through conditioning, which associates a stimulus in the environment, such as a sound, to a response, such as what a human does when they hear that sound. Key studies in behaviorism demonstrate the difference between two types of conditioning: classical conditioning, which is associated with psychologists like Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson, and operant conditioning, associated with B.F. Skinner.
How does operant conditioning work?
In operant conditioning, an animal or human learns a behavior by associating it with consequences. This can be done through positive or negative reinforcement, or punishment. Operant conditioning is still seen in classrooms today, though behaviorism is no longer the dominant way of thinking in psychology.
Why does my rat run straight toward the lever?
After some time, the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box, suggesting that the rat had figured out that the lever meant it would get food. In a similar experiment, a rat was placed inside a Skinner box with an electrified floor, causing the rat discomfort.
What is behaviorism in psychology?
Updated September 20, 2019. Behaviorism is the theory that human or animal psychology can be objectively studied through observable actions (behaviors.) This field of study came about as a reaction to 19th-century psychology, which used self-examination of one’s thoughts and feelings to examine human and animal psychology.
What is classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, an animal or human learns to associate two stimuli with each other. This type of conditioning involves involuntary responses, such as biological responses or emotional ones. In operant conditioning, an animal or human learns a behavior by associating it with consequences.
What are the two main types of behaviorism?
There are two main types of behaviorism: methodological behaviorism, which was heavily influenced by John B. Watson’s work, and radical behaviorism , which was pioneered by psychologist B.F. Skinner.
How is the mind studied in mentalism?
In mentalism, the mind is studied by analogy and by examining one’s own thoughts and feelings— a process called introspection. Mentalist observations were considered too subjective by the behaviorists, as they differed significantly among individual researchers, often leading to contradictory and irreproducible findings.
What is behaviorism in psychology?
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking. Behavior is the result of stimulus–response (i.e., all behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response features).
What is the theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning?
Behaviorist Approach. Behaviorism , also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli.
What is Watson's article on psychology called?
Watson's article 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it' is often referred to as the 'behaviorist manifesto,' in which Watson (1913, p. 158) outlines the principles of all behaviorists:
What are some examples of cognitive psychology?
They emphasize the role of nature over nurture. For example, chromosomes and hormones (testosterone) influence our behavior too, in addition to the environment. Cognitive psychology states that mediational processes occur between stimulus and response, such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, etc.
What are the contributions of behaviorism?
These include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender development, which have all been explained in terms of conditioning. The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in some of its practical applications.
What is the result of stimulus response?
Behavior is the result of stimulus-response: All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as:
Why is social learning theory also on the nurture side?
The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment.
What is the backbone of behaviorism?
Watson’s ideas regarding behavior eventually established the backbone of behaviorism. Even though radical behaviorism is more associated with Skinner today, the term itself was introduced and popularized by Watson. “Indeed, Skinner had used the term to describe his views in the 1930s, but in an unpublished manuscript; moreover, radical behaviorism was in use even prior to this,” Susan M. Schneider and Edward K. Morris write in The Behavior Analyst. In fact, Watson initially presented behaviorism, most notably in his 1913 essay “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It.”
How does radical behaviorism help?
They can apply radical behaviorism to help increase efficiency and move toward personal goals. For example, a professor may recognize that he becomes agitated as a semester draws to a close. He could identify external factors contributing to his behavior, such as an onslaught of reports to grade or a lack of sleep due to hours spent reviewing peer research, address those factors (such as by setting a schedule for grading reports or setting aside peer review time during the day), and then follow those strategies to change his behavior and ultimately prevent agitation in the future.
What is the central proposition of behaviorism?
“The central proposition of behaviorism-the idea that all behaviorists agree about and that defines behaviorism-is the idea that a science of behavior is possible, ” William M.
What is the new theory of behaviorism?
Skinner introduced a new idea: radical behaviorism. In his radical behaviorism definition, he argued that a person’s behavior and the environmental factors that influence it are much more crucial to the fundamental understanding of a person’s psychological state.
What are some examples of radical behaviorism?
As mentioned earlier, radical behaviorism’s definition stems from psychology but has many applications in day-to-day life. Applied behavior analyst, clinical supervisor, and college professor are just a few examples of occupations in which radical behaviorism may play a role. ● Applied Behavior Analyst.
What is applied behavior analysis?
For example, an applied behavior analyst can help identify the factors contributing to an athlete’s poor performance on the field and show him how to adjust his behavior to achieve the desired outcome. In an office, if there is an employee who is creating problems, or perhaps an employee who is struggling to meet certain benchmarks or goals, an applied behavior analyst can work with the individual to identify negative behaviors, the factors influencing those actions, and methods to achieve more suitable behaviors.
What is the process of Skinner's "operant conditioning"?
Skinner developed a process called “operant conditioning,” in which behavior is influenced by what happens after an event through positive or negative reinforcement, such as a rat’s being given a mild shock if it did not proceed in the correct way in a maze.
What is behaviourism?
Behaviourist pedagogy, or behaviourism, looks at the observable actions of students and assesses whether they are learning as effectively as possible.
How to teach behaviorism?
We wouldn’t recommend going all out, but if you were to only apply behaviourism to your teaching it would likely look a little like this: 1 Teacher leads the class through a topic 2 Students listen silently 3 Teacher then sets a task based on the information 4 Students complete the task and await feedback 5 The teacher gives feedback, then sets the next task 6 With each round of feedback, the student is being conditioned to learn the material.
What is operant conditioning?
This technique formed the basis for operant conditioning: teaching a behaviour or action through repetition and reinforcement. It’s the basis for most behaviourist approaches to teaching. It wasn’t until 1937 that B.F Skinner coined the phrase ‘operant conditioning’.
Why is operant conditioning important?
But operant conditioning still holds true when trying to instill a learning mindset in our pupils. By providing valuable and speedy feedback, rewarding good behaviour and getting students used to routines, teachers start to create habits in students that make them improve their learning.
What is reward for working well?
Rewarding students for working well with commendations or praise points (even with vocal praise) is a behaviourist approach. This conditions students to behave or to strive for better work using the same operant conditioning techniques championed by Skinner.
Why is quick feedback important?
Quick feedback - The sooner you give feedback after a task, the more effective it will be in shaping that student for success. If the wait is too long between completing a task and receiving feedback, it’s less likely students will associate the feedback with the work they did and any effects are lost.
How does pedagogy affect teaching?
Pedagogy, the science of teaching, affects what we do as teachers and how our students learn. Whether we know it or not, pedagogy creeps into every aspect of what we do. It’s important then, to fully understand the forces at play when we give a detention, set a group task or apply a seating plan. As such a vast area of psychology, pedagogy is often ...
What Is Behaviorism?
- One has to be careful with “ism” words. They often have both loose andstrict meanings. And sometimes multiple meanings of eachtype. ‘Behaviorism’ is no exception. Loosely speaking,behaviorism is an attitude – a way of conceiving of empiricalconstraints on psychological state attribution. Strictly speaking,behaviorism is a doctrine – a way of doing ...
Three Types of Behaviorism
- Methodological behaviorism is a normative theory about the scientificconduct of psychology. It claims that psychology should concern itselfwith the behavior of organisms (human and nonhumananimals). Psychology should not concern itself with mental states orevents or with constructing internal information processing accountsof behavior. According to methodological b…
Roots of Behaviorism
- Each of methodological, psychological, and analytical behaviorism hashistorical foundations. Analytical behaviorism traces its historicalroots to the philosophical movement known as Logical Positivism (seeSmith 1986). Logical positivism proposes that the meaning ofstatements used in science must be understood in terms of experimentalconditions or observations that verify their t…
Popularity of Behaviorism
- Behaviorism of one sort or another was an immensely popular researchprogram or methodological commitment among students of behavior fromabout the third decade of the twentieth century through its middledecades, at least until the beginnings of the cognitive sciencerevolution. Cognitive science began to mature roughly from 1960 until 1985 (see Bechtel…
Why Be A Behaviorist
- Why would anyone be a behaviorist? There are three main reasons(see also Zuriff 1985). The first reason is epistemic or evidential. Warrant or evidence forsaying, at least in the third person case, that an animal or person isin a certain mental state, for example, possesses a certain belief, isgrounded in behavior, understood as observable behavior. Moreover, theconceptual space or …
Skinner’s Social Worldview
- Skinner is the only major figure in the history of behaviorism tooffer a socio-political world view based on his commitment tobehaviorism. Skinner constructed a theory as well as narrativepicture in Walden Two (1948) of what an ideal human society would belike if designed according to behaviorist principles (see also Skinner1971). Skinner’s social worldview illustrates his aversion…
Why Be Anti-Behaviorist
- Behaviorism is dismissed bycognitive scientists developing intricate internal informationprocessing models of cognition. Its laboratory routines or experimental regimens are neglected by cognitive ethologists and ecological psychologists convinced thatits methods are irrelevant to studying how animals and persons behavein their natural and social environment. Its traditional relativeindiffer…
Conclusion
- In 1977 Willard Day, a behavioral psychologist and founding editor ofthe journal Behaviorism (which now is known as Behavior andPhilosophy), published Skinner’s “Why I am not a cognitivepsychologist” (Skinner 1977). Skinner began the paper by statingthat “the variables of which human behavior is a function lie inthe environment” (p. 1). Skinner ended by remarking th…
History and Origins
Methodological Behaviorism
- In 1913, psychologist John B. Watson published the paper that would be considered the manifesto of early behaviorism: “Psychology as the behaviorist views it.”In this paper, Watson rejected mentalist methods and detailed his philosophy on what psychology should be: the science of behavior, which he called “behaviorism.” It should be noted that although Watson is often labele…
Radical Behaviorism
- Of the behaviorists after Watson, perhaps the most well-known is B.F. Skinner. Contrasting many other behaviorists of the time, Skinner’s ideas focused on scientific explanations rather than methods. Skinner believed that observable behaviors were outward manifestations of unseen mental processes, but that it was more convenient to study those observable behaviors. His app…
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning
- Behaviorists believe humans learn behaviors through conditioning, which associates a stimulus in the environment, such as a sound, to a response, such as what a human does when they hear that sound. Key studies in behaviorism demonstrate the difference between two types of conditioning: classical conditioning, which is associated with psychologists like Ivan Pavlovand J…
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs
- The Pavlov’s dogsexperiment is a widely known experiment involving dogs, meat, and the sound of a bell. At the start of the experiment, dogs would be presented meat, which would cause them to salivate. When they heard a bell, however, they did not. For the next step in the experiment, the dogs heard a bell before they were brought food. Over time, the dogs learned that a ringing bell …
Classical Conditioning: Little Albert
- In another experimentthat showed the classical conditioning of emotions in humans, the psychologist J.B. Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner exposed a 9-month-old child, whom they called “Little Albert,” to a white rat and other furry animals, like a rabbit and a dog, as well as to cotton, wool, burning newspapers, and other stimuli—all of which did not frighten Albe…
Operant Conditioning: Skinner Boxes
- Psychologist B.F. Skinner placed a hungry rat in a box containing a lever. As the rat moved around the box, it would occasionally press the lever, consequently discovering that food would drop when the lever was pressed. After some time, the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box, suggesting that the rat had figured out that the lever meant it …
Influence on Contemporary Culture
- Behaviorism can still be seen in the modern-day classroom, where operant conditioning is used to reinforce behaviors. For example, a teacher may give a prize to students who perform well on a test or punish a student who misbehaves by giving them time in detention. Though behaviorism was once the dominant trend in psychology in the mid-20th century, it has since lost traction to c…
Sources
- Baum, W. “What is behaviorism?” In Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture, and Evolution, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2017.
- Cascio, C. “How will I apply behaviorist philosophy in the classroom?” Seattle Pi.
- Kim, E. “Differences between classical and operant conditioning.” 2015.
- Goldman, J. G. “What is classical conditioning? (And why does it matter?)” Scientific America…
- Baum, W. “What is behaviorism?” In Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture, and Evolution, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2017.
- Cascio, C. “How will I apply behaviorist philosophy in the classroom?” Seattle Pi.
- Kim, E. “Differences between classical and operant conditioning.” 2015.
- Goldman, J. G. “What is classical conditioning? (And why does it matter?)” Scientific American, 2012.
