Upward counterfactual thinking
Counterfactual thinking
Counterfactual thinking is a concept in psychology that involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened. Counterfactual thinking is exactly as it states: "counter to the facts."
What is downward counterfactual thinking?
Downward counterfactual thinking is, naturally, the opposite of upward counterfactual thinking in that we think about how things could have been worse if other decisions had been made.
What are the two types of counterfactual thinking?
There are two types of counterfactual thinking: upward and downward. Both upward and downward counterfactual thinking can be positive impacts on your current outlook - however, upward counterfactual thinking has been linked with depression.
What is counterfactual thinking according to Roese?
(Roese, 1997 ) Counterfactual thinking is described as either upward ("Things could have been better") i.e., improve on reality, or downward ("Things could have been worse") i.e., worsen reality, and "count your blessings."
What are upward counterfactuals?
These kinds of thoughts tend to make people feel dissatisfied and unhappy; however, upward counterfactuals are the kind of thoughts that allow people to think about how they can do better in the future.
What is upward and downward counterfactual thinking?
There are two types of counterfactual thoughts, downward and upward. Downward counterfactuals are thoughts about how the situation could have been worse; and people tend to have a more positive view of the actual outcome. Upward counterfactuals are thoughts about how the situation could have been better.
What is an example of counterfactual thinking?
Examples of upward counterfactual thinking are: “I wish I had taken that other job instead of this one 10 years ago – my life would be so much better if I had.” “I wish I would have gotten the part in that high school play, maybe I could have gotten into a theatre school and became an actor…”
Which statement is an example of an upward counterfactual?
Upward counterfactual thinking is usually triggered by regret or disappointment. An example of this would be getting into a car accident and thinking, "if only I had swerved sooner". Upward counterfactuals imagine how scenarios could be better and are the more common type of counterfactual thought.
What do you mean by counterfactual thinking?
Thinking about what might have been, about alternatives to our own pasts, is central to human thinking and emotion. Such thoughts are called counterfactual thoughts. Counterfactual thoughts are mental representations of alternatives to past events, actions, or states (Byrne, 2005; Roese, 1997).
What is another word for counterfactual?
In this page you can discover 14 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for counterfactual, like: hypothetical, wrong, contrary to fact, frequentist, a posteriori, true, counterfactuals, causality, false, specious and spurious.
What is a downward counterfactual?
Definition of Downward Counterfactual A downward counterfactual is a thought about the past where the outcome was worse than what actually happened (Roese, 1997). This contrasts with an upward counterfactual where the outcome was better.
What is counterfactual thinking this type of thinking quizlet?
Counterfactual thinking-- imagining what could have been-- occurs when we can easily picture an alternative outcome.
What are counterfactuals in psychology?
1. imagining ways in which events in one's life might have turned out differently. This often involves feelings of regret or disappointment (e.g., If only I hadn't been so hasty) but may also involve a sense of relief, as at a narrow escape (e.g., If I had been standing three feet to the left…).
Is counterfactual thinking a controlled process?
Controlled processes such as counterfactual thinking can have their benefits and drawbacks. First, discuss what is meant by the term "counterfactual thinking," then explain how this phenomenon can be beneficial and how it can be detrimental. Counterfactual thinking is the process of mentally redoing the past.
What is a benefit of counterfactual thinking quizlet?
Counterfactual thoughts increase how causal events are seen as being. Semifactual thoughts decrease how causal events are seen as being. Intentions Consequences.
What are counterfactuals in psychology?
1. imagining ways in which events in one's life might have turned out differently. This often involves feelings of regret or disappointment (e.g., If only I hadn't been so hasty) but may also involve a sense of relief, as at a narrow escape (e.g., If I had been standing three feet to the left…).
What is counterfactual thinking this type of thinking quizlet?
Counterfactual thinking-- imagining what could have been-- occurs when we can easily picture an alternative outcome.
What type of reasoning is reasoning by counterfactuals?
Counterfactual conditionals are used extensively in causal reasoning. This observation has motivated a philosophical tradition that aims to provide a counterfactual analysis of causation.
Why is upward counterfactual thinking so difficult?
This can be difficult, though, because much of the time upward counterfactual thinking is more associated with a pessimistic outlook that can be unmotivating.
Why is counterfactual thinking important?
Using counterfactual thinking as a motivational tool can be very helpful if we don’t get stuck in the “what if” mindset that tends to pull us out of the present and back into the past, where things will always remain the same.
What are the two types of counterfactual thinking?
There are two types of counterfactual thinking: upward and downward.
Which type of thinking tends to be more associated with psychological health?
Downward counterfactual thinking tends to be more associated with psychological health
What are the thoughts associated with depression?
According to a 2017 study that pooled a sample of over 13,000 respondents, thoughts about “better outcomes” and regret (upward counterfactual thinking) were associated with current and future depression.
Is downward counterfactual thinking more harmful than upward counterfactual thinking?
While many people don’t see the point in “what if” scenarios, various studies have found that downward counterfactual thinking can be more associated with psychological health compared with upward counterfactual thinking. Not only that, but research has also shown upward counterfactual thinking can be linked with current and future depression.
Is counterfactual thinking a natural process?
While counterfactual thinking is a very normal and natural process, experts suggest the best course is to focus on the present and future and allow counterfactual thinking to act as a motivator when possible.
What is counterfactual thinking?
Counterfactual thinking is a concept in psychology that involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened. Counterfactual thinking is, as it states: "counter to ...
What is the activation portion of counterfactual thinking?
First, there is the activation portion. This activation is whether we allow the counterfactual thought to seep into our conscious thought. The second portion involves content. This content portion creates the end scenario for the antecedent.
What is the difference between additive and subtractive counterfactual?
A counterfactual statement may involve the action or inaction of an event that originally took place. An additive statement involves engaging in an event that did not originally occur (e.g., I should have taken medicine) whereas a subtractive statement involves removing an event that took place (e.g., I should have never started drinking ). Additive counterfactuals are more frequent than subtractive counterfactuals.
How does counterfactual thinking affect collective action?
On the other hand, at a group level, counterfactual thinking can lead to collective action. According to Milesi and Catellani (2011), political activists exhibit group commitment and are more likely to re-engage in collective action following a collective defeat and show when they are engage in counterfactual thinking. Unlike the cognitive processes involved at individual level, abstract counterfactuals lead to an increase in group identification, which is positively correlated with collective action intention. The increase in group identification impacts on people's affect. Abstract counterfactuals also lead to an increase in group efficacy. Increase in group efficacy translates to belief that the group has the ability to change outcomes in situations. This in turn motivates group members to make group-based actions to attain their goal in the future.
How does perceived power affect counterfactual thinking?
Recent research by Scholl and Sassenberg (2014) looked to determine how perceived power in the situation can affect the counterfactual thought and process associated to understanding future directions and outlooks. The research examined how manipulating the perceived power of the individual in the given circumstance can lead to different thoughts and reflections, noting that "demonstrated that being powerless (vs. powerful) diminished self-focused counterfactual thinking by lowering sensed personal control". These results may show a relationship between how the self perceives events and determines the best course of action for future behavior.
What are the two types of counterfactual thoughts?
There are two types of counterfactual thoughts, downward and upward. Downward counterfactuals are thoughts about how the situation could have been worse; and people tend to have a more positive view of the actual outcome. Upward counterfactuals are thoughts about how the situation could have been better.
Why do we use counterfactual theory?
Risk aversion. Main article: Risk aversion (psychology) Another reason we continue to use counterfactual theory is to avoid situations that may be unpleasant to us, which is part of our approach and avoidance behavior. Often, people make a conscious effort to avoid situations that may make them feel unpleasant.
What is counterfactual thinking?
By definition, counterfactual thinking is the creation of possible alternatives to certain life events that have already happened. It basically means “counter to the facts”, and comes with phrases that we know pretty well: “If I had only…” and “What if?”
What is the downward state of thinking?
The upward state of this type of thinking is when we think at things that could have changed the outcome of an event in better. On the other side, the downward state focuses on the worse, specifically at how things could have been more serious than they were.
What does it mean when you are unhappy with an outcome?
Usually, if we are unhappy with an outcome, it means that we were only one step away from making it how we now want it to be. This is yet another trigger factor of counterfactual thinking. If only one different action or word would have changed the outcome of something entirely, we will begin to as ourselves “What if?”
Is counterfactual thinking a burden?
Counterfactual thinking may be a burden for our heads sometimes. We don’t always fully understand why we think of possible outcomes for a situation that’s long gone and done. However, it is only a base for the evolution of our mind and of our way of thinking.
How does counterfactual thinking affect behavior?
Researchers, though, now are more apt to focus on the beneficial effects of counterfactual thinking, particularly in changing behavior (Epstude and Roese, 2008) and even "weaving a tapestry of meaning" in a person's life." (Kray et al, 2010) For example, they attribute three major functions to counterfactual thinking: regulating affect whereby imagining other scenarios can make people feel better about their current circumstances; preparing for the future by focusing on avoiding any previous failures or mistakes; and enabling a "perception of predictability," i.e., feeling more in control of a situation. (Sherman and McConnell, in Roese and Olsen, 1995, pp. 200-201; 226.) Along those lines, Tykocinski ( Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2001) writes of "retroactive pessimism " whereby counterfactual thinking allows people to accept some disappointment or trauma by believing the outcome was in fact inescapable--a kind of adaptive coming to terms with reality. For example, people sometimes offer consolation after a tragedy by emphasizing the inevitability of the event. In other words, counterfactual thinking can undo "metaphoric forks on the path of life" and "ironically" foster a sense that the actual path chosen was destined. (Kray et al, 2010)
When does counterfactual thinking begin?
Although some researchers believe that counterfactual thinking begins in toddlers as they engage in pretend play (Byrne, 2016), others emphasize that it reflects a "highly complex cognitive capability" that does not develop until late in childhood.
What are the negative effects of counterfactual thinking?
Research initially emphasized the dysfunctional aspect of counterfactual thinking. Potential negative consequences include increased anxiety, depression (Howlett and Paulus, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2013; Broomhall et al, Clinical Psychology Review, 2017), and even rumination. (Roese, 1997) Quite specifically, vivid and frequent counterfactual rumination after a trauma is associated with post- traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD) (Blix et al, 2018) "Mentally undoing" traumatic events, longing for an idealized past, and indulging in lost opportunities of "what might have been" generate increased distress (Krott and Oettingen, Motivation and Emotion, 2018), poignantly described in George Eliot's conclusion to The Mill on the Floss. (1860) After a devastating flood results in the drowning of Maggie and her beloved brother Tom, Eliot writes, "Nature repairs her ravages--but not all. The uptorn trees are not rooted again--the parted hills are left scarred...To the eyes that have dwelt on the past, there is no thorough repair." (p. 543, reprinted Penguin Classics edition, 1985)
Summary
Types
Upward counterfactual thinking focuses on how the situation could have been better. Many times, people think about what they could have done differently. For example, "If I started studying three days ago, instead of last night, I could have done better on my test." Since people often think about what they could have done differently, it is not uncommon for people to feel regret during upward counterfactual thinking.
Overview
The term "Counterfactual" is defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as contrary to the facts. A counterfactual thought occurs when a person modifies a factual prior event and then assesses the consequences of that change. A person may imagine how an outcome could have turned out differently, if the antecedents that led to that event were different. For example, a person may reflect upon how a car accident could have turned out by imagining how some of the factors co…
History
The origin of counterfactual thinking has philosophical roots and can be traced back to early philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato who pondered the epistemological status of subjunctive suppositions and their nonexistent but feasible outcomes. In the seventeenth century, the German philosopher, Leibniz, argued that there could be an infinite number of alternate worlds, so long as they were not in conflict with laws of logic. The well known philosopher Nicholas Rescher (as wel…
Activation
There are two portions to counterfactual thinking. First, there is the activation portion. This activation is whether we allow the counterfactual thought to seep into our conscious thought. The second portion involves content. This content portion creates the end scenario for the antecedent.
The activation portion leads into the mystery of why we allow ourselves to think of other alternatives that could have been beneficial or harmful to us. It is believed that humans tend to t…
Functional basis
One may wonder why we continue to think in counterfactual ways if these thoughts tend to make us feel guilty or negatively about an outcome. One of the functional reasons for this is to correct for mistakes and to avoid making them again in the future. If a person is able to consider another outcome based on a different path, they may take that path in the future and avoid the undesired outcome. It is obvious that the past cannot be changed, however, it is likely that similar situation…
Current research
As with many cognitive processes in the brain, current and upcoming research seeks to gain better insight into the functions and outcomes of how we think. Research for counterfactual thinking has recently been investigating various effects and how they might alter or contribute to counterfactual thinking. One study by Rim and Summerville (2014) investigated the distance of the event in terms of time and how this length of time can affect the process by which counterfa…
Theories
Kahneman and Miller (1986) proposed the norm theory as a theoretical basis to describe the rationale for counterfactual thoughts. Norm theory suggests that the ease of imagining a different outcome determines the counterfactual alternatives created. Norms involve a pairwise comparison between a cognitive standard and an experiential outcome. A discrepancy elicits an affective response which is influenced by the magnitude and direction of the difference. For exa…