What elements did Empedocles use to create the first natural system?
In his model he used four elements (water, fire, earth, air) and four seasons to derive diversity of natural systems. 490–421 Protagoras.
What is the meaning of the Lewin equation?
1936 – Kurt Lewin published Principles of Topological Psychology, containing Lewin's Equation B = f (P, E), meaning that behavior is a function of a person in their environment.
Who was the APA representative in 1970?
1970s. 1970 – At an APA Town Hall Meeting, with the support of the Association for Women in Psychology, Phyllis Chesler and Nancy Henley prepared a statement on APA's obligations to women and demanded one million dollars in reparation for the damage psychology had perpetrated against women's minds and bodies.
Who published the affect theory?
1962 – Silvan Tomkins published volume one (of two) of Affect Imagery Consciousness, presenting his affect theory. 1963 – Stanley Milgram published his study of obedience to authority, now known as the Milgram experiment. 1964 – Jean M. Mandler and George Mandler published Thinking: From Association to Gestalt.
Who published Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy?
1962 – Albert Ellis published Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, describing the theoretical foundations of his therapeutic system known as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. 1962 – George Armitage Miller published Psychology, the Science of Mental Life, rejecting the idea that psychology should study only behavior.
Who published the first humanistic psychology book?
1958 – John Cohen published Humanistic Psychology, the first book on the subject.
Who helped to develop the hierarchy of needs?
1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found humanistic psychology, later developing Maslow's hierarchy of needs. 1954 – Paul E. Meehl published a paper claiming that mechanical (formal algorithmic) methods of data combination outperform clinical (subjective informal) methods when used to arrive at a prediction of behavior.
What is the UCS in psychology?
In the classical conditioning paradigm (see Classical Conditioning and Clinical Psychology ), Pavlov also used the term to refer to the ‘unconditioned stimulus’ (UCS: the stimulus that evokes the reflexive response). When this stimulus is regularly paired with (predicted by) a neutral stimulus, the latter comes to evoke a somewhat similar response. The UCS is thus considered reinforcement, since its occurrence increases the tendency to emit a response in the presence of a previously neutral stimulus. Of considerable theoretical and practical importance is the phenomenon that when the UCS is removed and the previously neutral stimulus presented repeatedly, the conditioned response eventually ceases to occur. This phenomenon, as well as the procedure of removing the UCS, is known as extinction. It has an exact parallel in instrumental conditioning: if the overt behavior no longer produces the positive outcome, its probability decreases. This process is not simply the opposite of reinforcement; it is not unlearning or forgetting, but learning to do something else.
What was single case analysis?
In the early days of modern psychology, when Edward Bradford Titchener, William James, and Wilhelm Wundt rose to prominence, single-case analysis was a well-respected research strategy. Not uncommonly the researchers chose themselves as the subjects for investigation. Introspection and single-case experiments largely dominated psychological research in those pioneering times. The German philosopher Karl Jaspers introduced a special form of case study, called Biografik (biographic), which focused primarily on the course of individuals' lives. With the introduction of what were considered more objective data sources and analytical methods, introspection and single-case experiments—and, as a consequence, the single-case approach—were sidelined and eventually replaced. The reasons were many (Danzinger 1990 ). Psychology as a new field of research had to gain ground and hold out against well-established traditional disciplines such as medicine, physics, and biology. The decision to adopt an experimental methodology was made in the hope of enhancing the reputation of psychological research. The questionnaire as an economic data collection tool was also making inroads into psychology. This methodology, adopted from the social sciences, allowed for the collection and analysis of large, standardized samples. Experiments could now be carried out involving substantial numbers of people.
What are the three paradigms of psychology?
Modern psychology has spawned three major theoretical paradigms: cognitivism, behaviorism, and depth psychology, all of which continue longstanding philosophical traditions. In the tradition of rational philosophy, cognitivism regards human beings as reasonable, conscious, reflexive, and self-organizing.
What is reinforcement theory?
Reinforcement is closely linked to evolutionary principles, in that it represents adaptive functioning with obvious survival implications, and applies to all species capable of benefitting from experience. Its origin as a formal principle of modern psychology derives from Thorndike's (1927) Law of Effect: the occurrence of a ‘satisfying’ event ‘stamps in’ the behavior that was instrumental in producing it. Hull's ( 1943) influential learning theory proposed that the increase is in the strength of the association between a prior stimulus (cue or context) and the response, with the mechanism underlying reinforcement being the reduction in a basic biological drive. However, many stimuli can serve as reinforcers when they have only incentive value (such as a sweet but non-nutritive substance).
What did Watson think of the nervous system?
He had little hope that behavior can be reduced to physiology and blamed the structuralists for the promotion of the fiction that it can be: ‘ [For a structuralist] the nervous system…has always been a mystery box—whatever he couldn't explain in “mental” terms he pushed over into the brain’ (Watson 1924, p. 43). ‘Until [the physiologist has reduced the various phenomena of psychology] to electrical and chemical processes…he cannot help us very much’ (p. 169).
What are Plato's three talents?
The psychology of Watson's time often analyzed the contents of the mind into Plato's three human talents: knowing, feeling and doing, which modern psychology calls cognition, affect, and reaction tendencies (Kimble 1996 ). Watson objected to such mentalistic concepts and translated them into conditioned reflexes: ‘laryngeal (language) reflexes’ for cognition, ‘visceral (emotional) reflexes’ for affect, and ‘manual (motor) reflexes’ for reaction tendencies.
What is the difference between intelligence and cognition?
The emphasis on individual differences distinguishes theories of intelligence from theories of cognition. Theories of cognition try to explain how the brain–mind system works in general, while theories of intelligence attempt to explain how people vary in their cognitive ability.
How to understand psychology?
By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Understand the importance of Wundt and James in the development of psychology 2 Appreciate Freud’s influence on psychology 3 Understand the basic tenets of Gestalt psychology 4 Appreciate the important role that behaviorism played in psychology’s history 5 Understand basic tenets of humanism 6 Understand how the cognitive revolution shifted psychology’s focus back to the mind
How did the cognitive revolution affect psychology?
European psychology had never really been as influenced by behaviorism as had American psychology; and thus, the cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular perspective resonates in modern-day psychology (Miller, 2003).
What is psychoanalytic theory?
Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005). (a) Sigmund Freud was a highly influential figure in the history of psychology.
How does psychology affect society?
The science of psychology has had an impact on human wellbeing, both positive and negative. The dominant influence of Western, white, and male academics in the early history of psychology meant that psychology developed with the biases inherent in those individuals, which often had negative consequences for members of society that were not white or male. Women, members of ethnic minorities in both the United States and other countries, and individuals with sexual orientations other than heterosexual had difficulties entering the field of psychology and therefore influencing its development. They also suffered from the attitudes of white, male psychologists, who were not immune to the nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the society in which they developed and worked. Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied. In addition, the experimental subjects of psychology were mostly men, which resulted from underlying assumptions that gender had no influence on psychology and that women were not of sufficient interest to study.
What is the name of the attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind?
This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind was known as structuralism. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879 ( [link] ). In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times.
What is the goal of Wundt's book?
Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience.
How does culture affect psychology?
Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet the effects of culture on psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that psychological theories and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed to apply to individuals and social groups from other cultures and this is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness in the field of cross-cultural psychology is that in looking for differences in psychological attributes across cultures, there remains a need to go beyond simple descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, 1993). In this sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to determine cause and effect. For example, a study of characteristics of individuals seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic American, African American, and Caucasian American individuals found significant differences between groups (Franko et al., 2012). The study concluded that results from studying any one of the groups could not be extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the differences were not measured.
Overview
20th century
• 1900 – Sigmund Freud published The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.
• 1903 – John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago; his dissertation on rat behavior has been described as a "classic of developmental psychobiology" by historian of psychology Donald Dewsbury.
• 1903 – Helen Thompson Woolley published her doctoral dissertation, The Mental Traits of Sex, for which she had conducted the first experimental test of sex differences.
Ancient history – BCE
• c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders.
• c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses.
• 540–475 Heraclitus
1st–5th century CE
• c. 50 – Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving De Medicina, a medical encyclopedia; Book 3 covers mental diseases. The term insania, insanity, was first used by him. The methods of treatment included bleeding, frightening the patient, emetics, enemas, total darkness, and decoctions of poppy or henbane, and pleasant ones such as music therapy, travel, sport, reading aloud, and massage. He was aware of the importance of the doctor-patient relationship.
6th–10th century
• 625–690 – Paul of Aegina suggested that hysteria should be treated by ligature of the limbs, and mania by tying the patient to a mattress placed inside a wicker basket and suspended from the ceiling. He also recommended baths, wine, special diets, and sedatives for the mentally ill. He described the following mental disorders: phrenitis, delirium, lethargus, melancholia, mania, incubus, lycanthropy, and epilepsy
11th–15th century
• 1025 – In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna described a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.
• c. 1030 – Al-Biruni employed an experimental method in examining the concept of reaction time.
16th century
• 1590 – Scholastic philosopher Rudolph Goclenius coined the term "psychology"; though usually regarded as the origin of the term, there is evidence that it was used at least six decades earlier by Marko Marulić.
17th century
• c. 1600–1625 – Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author, and pioneer of the scientific method. His writings on psychological topics included the nature of knowledge and memory.
• 1650 – René Descartes died, leaving Treatise of the World, containing his dualistic theory of reality, mind vs. matter.