What are facts about Queen Isabella of Spain?
Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila, to John II of Castile and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, on 22 April 1451. At the time of her birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother Henry IV of Castile. Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless.
What are facts about Queen Isabella?
Queen Isabella Facts
- Born
- Died
- Spouse
- Accomplishments. Queen Isabella summary: Queen Isabella was born to John II on April 22nd, 1451. When she was three, her father died, making her half-brother, Henry IV, King.
Who was the first Queen of Spain?
The First Spanish Queen
- Queen Isabella was born on the afternoon of 22nd April 1451 in Madrigal de las Altas Torres (Avila). ...
- Her birthplace was the Palace of Juan II in Madrigal de las Altas Torres. ...
- Princess Isabella had green-eyed and light auburn hair. ...
- Isabel was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother Henry.
Who was Isabella the first of Spain?
Isabella I ( Spanish: Isabel I, 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504) was Queen of Castile from 1474 until she died in 1504, reigning over a dynastically unified Spain jointly with her husband, King Ferdinand II of Aragon. She was Queen of Aragon after Ferdinand ascended in 1479. Together they are known as the Catholic Monarchs.
What happened to Queen Isabella of Spain?
Isabella officially withdrew from governmental affairs on 14 September 1504 and she died that same year on 26 November at the Medina del Campo Royal Palace.
When did Isabella become queen of Spain?
Isabella I, known as Isabella the Catholic Spanish Isabel la Católica, (born April 22, 1451, Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Castile—died Nov. 26, 1504, Medina del Campo, Spain), Queen of Castile (1474–1504) and of Aragon (1479–1504). Daughter of John II of Castile and León, she married Ferdinand V in 1469.
Was Isabella the Queen of Spain?
Isabella II (Spanish: Isabel II; 10 October 1830 – 9 April 1904), was Queen of Spain from 29 September 1833 until 30 September 1868. Shortly before her birth, the King Ferdinand VII of Spain issued a Pragmatic Sanction to ensure the succession of his firstborn daughter, due to his lack of a son.
When did Isabella and Ferdinand become king and queen?
The title of "Catholic King and Queen" was officially bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of the Catholic faith within their realms.
Who was the queen of Spain in 1492?
Isabella IIn terms of accomplishments, Isabella I unified Spain through her marriage to Ferdinand II of Aragon, and she financed the expedition of Christopher Columbus, leading to the discovery of the Americas.
Was Queen Isabella a good queen?
Isabella was Europe's first truly great queen regnant – the founding member of a small club of women whose influence spread well beyond their country's borders and which includes England's Elizabeth I and Victoria, the Russian empresses Catherine the Great and Elizabeth, as well as Maria Theresa of Austria.
Who was the last Queen of Spain?
Isabella II, (born Oct. 10, 1830, Madrid—died April 9, 1904, Paris), queen of Spain (1833–68) whose troubled reign was marked by political instability and the rule of military politicians.
Who is the next Queen of Spain?
Leonor, Princess of AsturiasLeonor, Princess of Asturias (Leonor de Todos los Santos de Borbón y Ortiz; born 31 October 2005) is the heir presumptive to the throne of Spain as the elder daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia.
Who is the first Queen of Spain?
IsabellaOn 13 December 1474 Isabella was crowned Queen of Castille in Segovia. The coronation at the Iglesia de San Miguel took plane just 2 days after Enrique IV´s death.
Why did Isabella and Ferdinand sponsor Columbus in 1492?
Columbus sailed in search of a route to Cathay (China) and India to bring back gold and spices that were highly sought in Europe. His patrons, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain, hoped that his success would bring them greater status.
Who was King of Spain in 1485?
Description. This portrait is one of a pair showing Ferdinand II of Aragon (1452-1516) and his wife, Isabella I of Castile (1451-1504), King and Queen of Spain and parents of Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536).
Did Ferdinand and Isabella love each other?
It was far from a love-story — while, by all accounts, Ferdinand and Isabella were a cordial and possibly even happy couple, their union was the accumulation of hundreds of years of Spanish history, forged by war and intrigue into a dynastic union that laid the foundations for the modern Spanish state.
Where was Isabella born?
Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila, to John II of Castile and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, on 22 April 1451. At the time of her birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother Henry IV of Castile. Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless.
Who was Isabella's husband?
The eldest daughter, Isabella of Aragon, married King Manuel I of Portugal, and the younger daughter, Joanna of Castile, was married to a Habsburg prince, Philip I of Habsburg. In 1500, Isabella granted all non-rebellious natives in the colonies citizenship and full legal freedom by decree.
What religion was Isabella I?
Religion. Roman Catholicism. Signature. Isabella I ( Spanish: Isabel I, Madrigal de las Altas Torres, 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504) was Queen of Castile from 1474 until she died in 1504, reigning over a dynastically unified Spain jointly with her husband, King Ferdinand II of Aragon. She was Queen of Aragon after Ferdinand ascended in 1479.
Why did Isabella need to reform her kingdom?
It was even said by one Castilian denizen of the time that murder, rape, and robbery happened without punishment. Because of this, Isabella needed desperately to find a way to reform her kingdom. Due to the measures imposed , historians during her lifetime saw her to be more inclined to justice than to mercy, and indeed far more rigorous and unforgiving than her husband Ferdinand.
How did Isabella's brother die?
Soon after he was named Prince of Asturias, Isabella's younger brother Alfonso died in July 1468, likely of the plague. The nobles who had supported him suspected poisoning. As she had been named in her brother's will as his successor, the nobles asked Isabella to take his place as champion of the rebellion.
What was Isabella's role in the rebellion?
Going against the advice of her male advisors, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end. Two years later, Isabella further secured her place as ruler with the birth of her son John, Prince of Asturias, on 30 June 1478.
What was the alliance between Charles and Isabella?
A major part of the alliance was that a marriage was to be arranged between Charles and Isabella. When John II learned of this arranged marriage he was outraged.
What are some interesting facts about Isabella?
Fast Facts: Queen Isabella 1 Known For: Queen of Castile, León, and Aragon (became Spain) 2 Also Known As: Isabella the Catholic 3 Born: April 22, 1451 in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Castile 4 Parents: King John II of Castile, Isabella of Portugal 5 Died: Nov. 26, 1504 in Medina del Campo, Spain 6 Spouse: Ferdinand II of Aragon 7 Children: Joanna of Castile, Catherine of Aragon, Isabella of Aragon, Maria of Aragon, and John, Prince of Asturias
Who was Isabella married to?
Isabella married Ferdinand of Aragon, a second cousin, in October 1469 without Henry's approval. The cardinal of Valentia, Rodrigo Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI), helped Isabel and Ferdinand obtain the necessary papal dispensation, but the couple still had to resort to pretenses and disguises to carry out the ceremony in Valladolid. Henry withdrew his recognition and named Juana as his heir. At Henry's death in 1474, a war of succession ensued, with Alfonso V of Portugal, prospective husband of Isabella's rival Juana, supporting Juana's claims. The dispute was settled in 1479 with Isabella recognized as Queen of Castile.
What did Isabella and Ferdinand do to unify Spain?
Isabella and Ferdinand planned to unify all of Spain by continuing a long-standing but stalled effort to expel the Moors, Muslims who held parts of Spain. In 1492, the Muslim Kingdom of Granada fell to Isabella and Ferdinand, thus completing the Reconquista.
What was Isabella's first act?
Among their first acts were various reforms to reduce the power of the nobility and increase the power of the crown. After her marriage, Isabella appointed Galindo as tutor to her children. Galindo founded hospitals and schools in Spain, including the Hospital of the Holy Cross in Madrid, and probably served as an adviser to Isabella ...
Who was Isabella's father?
At her birth on April 22, 1451, Isabella was second in the line of succession to her father, King John II of Castile, following her older half-brother Henry. She became third in line when her brother Alfonso was born in 1453. Her mother was Isabella of Portugal, whose father was a son of King John I of Portugal and whose mother was a granddaughter of the same king. Her father's father was Henry III of Castile, and his mother was Catherine of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt (third son of England's Edward III) and John's second wife, the Infanta Constance of Castile .
Who was the Catholic monarch who led the Inquisition?
Catholic Monarchs. In 1480, Isabella and Ferdinand instituted the Inquisition in Spain, one of many changes to the role of the church instituted by the monarchs. The Inquisition was aimed mostly at Jews and Muslims who had overtly converted to Christianity but were thought to be practicing their faiths secretly.
Who was Juana de la Cueva's second wife?
When his second wife, Joan of Portugal, gave birth to daughter Juana in 1462, the opposition nobles claimed that Juana was the daughter of Beltran de la Cueva, duke of Albuquerque. Thus, she's known in history as Juana la Beltraneja.
Why did Isabella II leave Spain?
On 7 July 1868 Isabella banished her brother-in-law and her sister, the Dukes of Montpensier, away from Spain, as they were linked to a conspiracy against the Crown in connivance with generals from the Liberal Union. Since late Summer, Isabella II was enjoying her traditional holidays in the coast in Lekeitio, Biscay.
When was Isabella the sworn in?
Isabella was declared of age and swore the 1837 Constitution on 10 November 1843, age thirteen. Despite the alleged parliamentary supremacy, in practice, the "double trust" led to Isabella having a role in the making and toppling of governments, undermining the progressives.
What happened to Isabella in 1868?
By September 1868 Isabella was a repudiated monarch, and, during the early stages of the revolution, instances of political iconoclasm carried out by the masses took place, leading to the destruction of many symbols and emblems of the Bourbon dynasty, a Damnatio memoriae.
When did Espartero enter Spain?
Espartero entered the capital of Spain on 28 July, and proceeded to separate again Isabella from the influence of Maria Christina. In any case, though Isabella accepted advice from Maria Christina, she was not characterised for displaying a profound filial love towards her mother.
Who was Isabella II's heir?
On 28 November 1857, Isabella II gave birth to a male heir, who was baptised on 7 December 1857 as Alfonso Francisco de Asís Fernando Pío Juan María Gregorio y Pelagio. Assumed by historians to be the biological son of Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans [ es], the toddler, who replaced infanta Isabella as Prince of Asturias upon his birth, was known under the moniker " el Puigmoltejo ", in reference to the rumours about his presumed biological parenthood. Isabella II showed a special affection for the child, greater than that shown to her daughters.
When was Isabella II monicker?
The use of the monicker in reference to Isabella II, however, dates back to 4 July 1865, when Antonio Aparisi Guijarro took the nickname from a verse in Shakespeare 's Richard III. Thus, in Act IV-Scene IV, Queen Margaret tells Queen Elizabeth:
Where is Isabel II?
Puerto Rico : Isabel II: barrio-pueblo (referred to as Isabel Segunda in Spanish) is a barrio and the administrative center (seat) in the downtown area in the island-municipality of Vieques, Puerto Rico.
Who was Isabella II?
10, 1830, Madrid—died April 9, 1904, Paris), queen of Spain (1833–68) whose troubled reign was marked by political instability and the rule of military politicians. Isabella’s failure to respond to growing demands for a more progressive regime, her questionable private life, and her political irresponsibility contributed ...
When was Isabella deposed?
In 1843 Espartero was deposed by military officers and Isabella was declared of age. The period of Isabella’s personal rule (1843–68) was characterized by political unrest and a series of uprisings.
When did Isabella go exile?
In the autumn of 1868 a successful revolution drove her into exile. Isabella settled in Paris, where in 1870 she abdicated in favour of her eldest surviving son, the future Alfonso XII (1874–85). She returned to Spain for a time after Alfonso’s accession but was unsuccessful in influencing political affairs.
Who was Isabella's uncle?
Her right to succeed to the throne was disputed by supporters of her uncle, Don Carlos, and her accession precipitated civil war (First Carlist War, 1833–39). During Isabella’s minority (1833–43), her mother and Gen. Baldomero Espartero, a hero of the civil war, acted successively as regents.
Who was Isabella of Spain?
Background. Isabella, who lived during troubled times for the Spanish monarchy, was the daughter of Ferdinand VII of Spain (1784 - 1833), a Bourbon ruler, by his fourth wife, Maria of the Two Sicilies (1806 - 1878). She was born October 10, 1830.
When did Isabella abdicate?
She abdicated on June 25, 1870, in favor of her son, Alfonso XII, who ruled beginning in December 1874, after the First Spanish Republic collapsed. Even though Isabella occasionally returned to Spain, she lived most of her later years in Paris, and she never again exerted much political power or influence.
Why did Isabella choose Francisco de Assis as her husband?
Isabella was rumored to have chosen her Bourbon cousin, Francisco de Assis, as a husband because he was impotent, and they largely lived apart, though they did have children.
What was Queen Isabella's title after abdication?
Her title after abdication was "Her Majesty Queen Isabella II of Spain.". Her husband died in 1902. Isabella died April 9 or 10, 1904. You can also read about Queen Isabella's in History on this site, in case this Isabella isn't the one you were looking for. Cite this Article.
What was Isabella's marriage plan?
Isabella had been expected to marry a relative of Prince Albert of England. Her change in marriage plans helped alienate England, empower the conservative faction in Spain, and bring Louis-Philippe of France closer to the conservative faction. This helped lead to the liberal uprisings of 1848 and to Louis-Philippe's defeat.
Who was the fourth wife of the Duke of Monpensier?
He married his fourth wife, Maria of the Two Sicilies, in 1829. They had first one daughter, the future Isabella II, in 1830, then another daughter, Luisa, younger than Isabella II, who lived from 1832 to 1897, and married Antoine, Duke of Monpensier. This fourth wife, Isabella II's mother, was another niece, daughter of his younger sister Maria ...
Who was the king of Spain in 1808?
Her Father's Reign. Ferdinand VII became king of Spain in 1808 when his father, Charles IV, abdicated. He abdicated about two months later, and Napoleon installed Joseph Bonaparte, his brother, as the Spanish king. The decision was unpopular, and within months Ferdinand VII was again established as king, though he was in France under Napoleon's ...
1. She Had A Disastrous Start
Isabella II’s life didn’t exactly have the most amazing start. Born on October 10, 1830, Isabella’s father was the problematic King Ferdinand VII of Spain, who some historians describe as “incompetent, despotic, and short-sighted.” Her mom was Queen María Cristina, Ferdinand’s fourth wife (yikes!) and niece (double yikes!).
2. She Was The Product Of Desperation
You see, Isabella’s dad desperately needed an heir—a male heir, to be exact—and none of his previous wives managed to produce one.
3. She Was Destined For Power
Isabella’s dad ratified a decree that allowed her and her younger sister, Luisa Fernanda, to inherit the Spanish throne. Thanks to his decree, Isabella was on track to receive a powerful, prestigious position, instead of being mere arm candy to the son of a royal house.
4. She Had A Close Enemy
Before Isabella came along, someone else was first in line for the throne. That person was her uncle, the Infante Carlos María Isidro of Spain. Thanks to Isabella’s father, dear uncle Carlos was suddenly displaced from the line of succession, and boy was he unhappy about it.
5. Her World Turned Upside Down
On September 29, 1833, Isabella’s dad lost his life. From that moment on, Isabella’s world drastically changed. She became Spain’s sovereign, with her mother as regent. Two days later, Isabella’s uncle Carlos shocked her by declaring himself the sovereign of Spain, and even went so far as to confirm government officials.
6. She Was Unstoppable
Simply put, Isabella’s army far outmatched her uncle’s. While their forces clashed again and again between 1834 and 1839, Isabella’s uncle failed to oust his young niece from the Spanish court. Thanks to her loyal supporters, she held onto her royal title, despite the fact that some contested her position.
7. She Lost Her Mother
In 1840, Isabella suffered a shocking loss. News of her mother’s secret marriage to a low-ranking officer went public, making her deeply unpopular. This, combined with the political unrest sweeping through Spain, caused Isabella’s army to turn against her own mother. They demanded that she step aside as regent.
How old was Isabella when she married Ferdinand?
At the time of their marriage on October 19, 1469, Isabella was eighteen years old and the heiress presumptive to the Crown of Castile, while Ferdinand was seventeen and heir apparent to the Crown of Aragon. They met for the first time in Valladolid in 1469 and married within a week.
What did Isabella and Ferdinand do after the fall of Spain?
After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion of all Jews from Spain.
How did Spain become a nation?
Spain was formed as a dynastic union of two crowns rather than a unitary state, as Castile and Aragon remained separate kingdoms until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707–1716.
Did Castile and Spain work together?
From the start, they had a close relationship and worked well together. Both knew that the crown of Castile was "the prize, and that they were both jointly gambling for it". However, it was a step toward the unification of the lands on the Iberian peninsula, which would eventually become Spain.
Overview
Isabella I (Spanish: Isabel I; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504) was Queen of Castile from 1474 until her death in 1504, reigning over a dynastically unified Spain together with her husband, King Ferdinand II of Aragon. She was Queen of Aragon after Ferdinand II ascended to that throne in 1479. Together, Isabella and Ferdinand are known as the Catholic Monarchs.
After a struggle to claim the throne, Isabella reorganized the governmental system, brought the …
Life
Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila, to John II of Castile and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, on 22 April 1451. At the time of Isabella's birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother Henry IV of Castile. Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless. Isabella's younger brother Alfonso of Castile was born two years later on 17 November 1453, demoting her position to third in line. When her father died in 1454, her half-brother ascen…
Appearance and personality
Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had a hair color that was between strawberry-blonde and auburn. Other descriptions, however, describe her hair as golden (blonde), and period illuminations show her several times with golden or strawberry blond hair. Some portraits show her as a brunette. That is due to a phenomenon occurring in old portraits, which often causes hair pigments to go dark brown. Many portraits from the 15th and …
Family
Isabella and Ferdinand had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood:
• Isabella (1470–1498) married firstly to Afonso, Prince of Portugal, no issue. Married secondly to Manuel I of Portugal, had Miguel da Paz, who died before his second birthday.
• A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in Cebreros
Cause of beatification and canonization
In 1958, José García Goldaraz, the Bishop of Valladolid where she died in 1504, started the canonical Catholic process of the Cause of Beatification and Canonization of Isabella. 17 experts were appointed to investigate more than 100,000 documents in the archives of Spain and the Vatican and the merits of opening a canonical process of canonization. 3,500 of these were chosen to be included in 27 volumes.
Arms
As Princess of Asturias, Isabella bore the undifferenced royal arms of the Crown of Castile and added the Saint John the Evangelist's Eagle, an eagle displayed as single supporter. As queen, she quartered the Royal Arms of the Crown of Castile with the Royal Arms of the Crown of Aragon, she and Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted a yoke and a bundle of arrows as heraldic badges. As co-monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand used the motto "Tanto Monta" ("They amount to the same", or …
Legacy
Isabella is most remembered for enabling Columbus' voyage to the New World, which ushered in an era of great wealth for Spain and Europe. Her reign saw the founding of the Spanish Empire, which in turn ultimately led to establishment of the modern nations of the Americas.
She and her husband completed the Reconquista, driving out the most significant Muslim influence in Western Europe and firmly establishing Spain and the Iberian peninsula as staunchl…
Commemoration
The Spanish crown created the Order of Isabella the Catholic in 1815 in honor of the queen.
Isabella was the first woman to be featured on US postage stamps, namely on three stamps of the Columbian Issue, also in celebration of Columbus. She appears in the 'Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella', 5-cent issue, and on the Spanish court scene replicated on the 15-cent Columbian, and on the $4 issue, in full portrait, side by side with Columbus.
Early Life
Succession
- Henry's first marriage ended in divorce and without children. When his second wife, Joan of Portugal, gave birth to daughter Juana in 1462, the opposition nobles claimed that Juana was the daughter of Beltran de la Cueva, duke of Albuquerque. Thus, she's known in history as Juana la Beltraneja. The opposition's attempt to replace Henry with Alfonso failed, with the final defeat co…
Marriage
- Isabella married Ferdinand of Aragon, a second cousin, in October 1469 without Henry's approval. The cardinal of Valentia, Rodrigo Borgia(later Pope Alexander VI), helped Isabel and Ferdinand obtain the necessary papal dispensation, but the couple still had to resort to pretenses and disguises to carry out the ceremony in Valladolid. Henry withdrew his recognition and named Ju…
Catholic Monarchs
- In 1480, Isabella and Ferdinand instituted the Inquisition in Spain, one of many changes to the role of the church instituted by the monarchs. The Inquisition was aimed mostly at Jews and Muslims who had overtly converted to Christianity but were thought to be practicing their faiths secretly. They were seen as heretics who rejected Roman Catholic orthodoxy. Ferdinand and Isabella wer…
New World
- Also in 1492, Christopher Columbus convinced Isabella to sponsor his first voyage of exploration. By the traditions of the time, when Columbus was the first European to encounter lands in the New World, these lands were given to Castile. Isabella took a special interest in the Indigenous peoplesof the new lands. When Columbus brought some enslaved Indigenous people back to Sp…
Death and Legacy
- By her death on Nov. 26, 1504, Isabella's sons, grandsons, and her older daughter Isabella, queen of Portugal, had already died, leaving as Isabella's only heir "Mad Joan" Juana, who became queen of Castile in 1504 and of Aragon in 1516. Isabella was a patron of scholars and artists, establishing educational institutions and building a large collection of artwork. She learned Lati…
Sources
- "Isabella I: Queen of Spain." Encyclopedia Brittanica.
- "Isabella I." Encyclopedia.com.
Overview
Isabella II (Spanish: Isabel II; 10 October 1830 – 9 April 1904), was Queen of Spain from 29 September 1833 until 30 September 1868.
Shortly before her birth, the King Ferdinand VII of Spain issued a Pragmatic Sanction to ensure the succession of his firstborn daughter, due to his lack of a son. She came to the throne a month before her third birthday, but her succession was disputed by her uncle the Infante Carlos (found…
Birth and regencies
Isabella was born in the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1830, the eldest daughter of King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and of his fourth wife and niece, Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. She was entrusted to the royal governess María del Carmen Machín y Ortiz de Zárate. Queen Maria Christina became regent on 29 September 1833, when her three-year-old daughter Isabella was proclaimed so…
Reign as an adult
Isabella was declared of age and swore the 1837 Constitution on 10 November 1843, age thirteen. Despite the alleged parliamentary supremacy, in practice, the "double trust" led to Isabella having a role in the making and toppling of governments, undermining the progressives. The uneasy alliance between moderates and progressives that had toppled Espartero in July 1843 was alre…
Life after ousting
Following the crossing of the French–Spanish border by train on 30 September, Isabella and Francisco de Asís spent 5 weeks in the Château de Pau organising their Parisian future, arriving to the French capital on 8 November, settling in the Rue de Rivoli 172. Isabella was forced to renounce to her dynastic rights in Paris in favour of her son, Alfonso on 25 June 1870, officially "freely and spontaneou…
Children
Isabella had twelve pregnancies, yet only five children reached adulthood:
• Infanta María Isabel (1851–1931): married her mother's and father's first cousin Prince Gaetan, Count of Girgenti.
• Alfonso XII of Spain (1857–1885) Future King of Spain.
Sobriquets
She came to be known by the sobriquets of the Traditional Queen (Spanish: la Reina Castiza), and the Queen of Sad Mischance (Spanish: la de los Tristes Destinos).
Film portrayal
In the 1997 film Amistad, she was played by Anna Paquin, and is depicted as a spoiled 11-year-old girl.
See also
• Carl Schurz, who was U.S. ambassador to Spain for a brief time at the beginning of Lincoln's presidency, in his Reminiscences (New York, McClure's Publ. Co., 1907, Volume II, Chapter VI) describes Isabel II and her court.
• Isabela province in the Philippines.
• Mid-19th-century Spain