See more
Who was the first Qing dynasty emperor?
Nurhaci1643–1661) became the first of the eleven Qing sovereigns to rule over China proper. At 61 years, the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r....List of emperors of the Qing dynasty.Emperor of the Great QingDetailsStyleHis Imperial Majesty (陛下)First monarchNurhaciLast monarchXuantong Emperor10 more rows
Who ran the Qing dynasty?
The 268-year duration of the Qing dynasty was dominated by the rule of two monarchs: the Kangxi Emperor, who reigned from 1662 to 1722, and his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, who reigned from 1736 to 1796.
What did the Qing dynasty discover?
However, the Qing dynasty used gunpowder to create the world's first machine guns, which could fire many bullets without reloading and held as many as 28 bullets at a time.
Why the Qing dynasty fell?
In the early 1800s, the Qing dynasty was starting to struggle. Population growth meant there wasn't enough farmland or jobs to support everyone. Poverty led many to rebel against the Qing. Foreign powers were also starting to involve themselves in trade with China, which led to wars and treaties that harmed the Qing.
Who defeated the Qing dynasty?
revolutionary Sun ZhongshanThe Qing Dynasty fell in 1911, overthrown by a revolution brewing since 1894 when western-educated revolutionary Sun Zhongshan formed the Revive China Society in Hawaii, then Hong Kong.
What is the Qing Dynasty best known for?
Under the Qing dynasty the territory of the Chinese empire expanded greatly, and the population grew from some 150 million to 450 million. Many of the non-Chinese minorities within the empire were Sinicized, and an integrated national economy was established.
How did the Qing Dynasty begin?
It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens who unified other Jurchen tribes to form a new "Manchu" ethnic identity. The dynasty was officially proclaimed in 1636 in Manchuria (modern-day Northeast China and Outer Manchuria).
What dynasty is China in now?
Timeline of Chinese HistoryYearEraRemarks1368–1644Imperial ChinaMost of the Great Wall today was built or repaired during the Ming Dynasty.1644–1912The last dynasty of China1912–1949Republic of China1949–presentModern China10 more rows•Jan 19, 2022
Who ruled China after the Qing dynasty?
The Republic of ChinaThe Republic of China officially succeeded the Qing Dynasty.
Who led China after the fall of the Qing emperor?
The Last Emperor, 6-year-old Puyi, formally abdicated the throne on Feb. 12, 1912, ending not only the Qing dynasty but China's millennia-long imperial period. Sun Yat-Sen was elected the first president of China, and the Republican era of China had begun.
Who was the longest ruling emperor of the Qing dynasty?
Kangxi Emperor (1654 — 1722), personal name Xuanye, respected as Emperor Shengzu of Qing, was a remarkable monarch of the Qing Dynasty, and the longest (61 years) reigning sovereign throughout the ancient history of China.
Which country ruled over China?
The ROC, now based in Taiwan, today considers itself a continuation of the country, thus calling the period of its mainland governance as the Mainland Period (traditional Chinese: 大陸時期; simplified Chinese: 大陆时期) of the Republic of China in Taiwan....Republic of China (1912–1949)Republic of China 中華民國 Chunghwa MinkuoDemonym(s)Chinese48 more rows
What is the Qing dynasty?
The Qing (or Ch’ing) dynasty, also called the Manchu (or Manzu) dynasty, was the last of the imperial dynasties of China, spanning from 1644 to 191...
Where was the Qing dynasty located?
The Qing dynasty was primarily located in what is now China and Mongolia, along with parts of Russia.
When was the Qing dynasty established?
The Qing dynasty was established in 1636 by the Manchus to designate their regime in Manchuria, in what is now northeastern China. It became the im...
What did the Qing dynasty accomplish?
Under the Qing dynasty the territory of the Chinese empire expanded greatly, and the population grew from some 150 million to 450 million. Many of...
How long did Qianlong rule?
Qianlong ascended to the throne in 1735 and spent 60 years ruling China. Not a dynamic ruler, Qianlong’s later reign was characterized by his own disinterest in ruling.
What was the last imperial dynasty in China?
BOXER REBELLION. FALL OF THE QING DYNASTY. SOURCES. The Qing Dynasty was the final imperial dynasty in China, lasting from 1644 to 1912. It was an era noted for its initial prosperity and tumultuous final years, and for being only the second time that China was not ruled by the Han people.
How long did Emperor Kangxi rule?
EMPEROR KANGXI. Kangxi ruled for 61 years, from 1654 to 1722, the longest of any Chinese emperor. He oversaw several cultural leaps, including the creation of a dictionary considered the best standardization of the Han language and the funding of surveys to create the most extensive maps of China up to that time.
What were the crops that Kangxi introduced?
Potatoes and corn —plants native to the Americas—were introduced as crops during Kangxi’s reign, and food was considered plentiful during that time. Additionally, Kangxi oversaw an explosion in exports, particularly that of cotton, silk, tea and ceramics.
What did Kangxi do?
Kangxi also reduced taxes and stifled corruption and governmental excess. He enacted policies that were favorable to farmers and stopped land seizures. He trimmed his own staff and expenditures significantly.
When did Guangxu try to reform China?
In 1898, Guangxu tried to take on the role of reformer in an attempt to modernize China, but this effort was squashed by Cixi after several months. Guangxu sought the support of an army general who betrayed him, and he found himself under house arrest at Cixi’s direction. Cixi also executed Guangxu’s fellow reformers.
How long did the Taiping Rebellion last?
The most deadly was the Taiping Rebellion, lasting from 1850 to 1864. Put into motion by Christian religious fanatic Hong Xiuquan, the city of Nanjing was occupied by rebels for a decade and 20 million Chinese died in the conflict.
What was the Qing Dynasty?
History of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty was the final Chinese Imperial dynasty; it saw both the heights of Chinese Imperial power and its downfall, ruling over China from the dynasty's founding in 1636 AD until its end in 1912 AD. Its establishment was begun by Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci starting in the early 1600's, ...
Who was the first Qing emperor?
His son, Hong Taiji would carry on his father's work and became the first Qing emperor in 1636, ruling until his death in 1643.
How did the Qing influence the Manchus?
The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu traditions. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority—only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces or in the rear and were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.
Why did the Qing want to shave?
The Qing demanded that Zheng Jing and his men on Taiwan shave in order to receive recognition as a fiefdom. His men and Ming prince Zhu Shugui fiercely objected to shaving. On 31 December 1650, Dorgon suddenly died during a hunting expedition, marking the official start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule.
How long did the Kangxi rule?
The Kangxi Emperor took the throne in 1662, ruling for 61 years – longer than any other – until 1722. Under the Kangxi emperor the Qing dynasty entered a time of great prosperity: the High Qing era. The major Revolt of the Three Feudatories was put down during the period, and various border wars were resolved.
Why did Yongzheng draw up the Treaty of Kyakhta?
A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local Miao chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.
How long did the Qing Dynasty last?
So ended the Qing dynasty, and over 2,000 years of Imperial Chinese rule. Shikai ruled as a dictator briefly, but proved incapable of ruling all China, and the country splintered apart, not to be fully reunited until 1928 under Chiang Kai-shek.
When was the Qing Dynasty established?
The Qing dynasty was established in 1636 by the Manchus to designate their regime in Manchuria, in what is now northeastern China. It became the imperial dynasty of all of China in 1644 after the reigning Ming dynasty called upon the Manchus for military assistance.
How many people were in the Qing Dynasty?
Under the Qing dynasty the territory of the Chinese empire expanded greatly, and the population grew from some 150 million to 450 million. Many of the non-Chinese minorities within the empire were Sinicized, and an integrated national economy was established.
What is the name of the last imperial dynasty in China?
See Article History. Alternative Titles: Ch’ing dynasty, Manchu dynasty, Manzu dynasty. Qing dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Ch’ing, also called Manchu dynasty or Pinyin Manzu, the last of the imperial dynasties of China, spanning the years 1644 to 1911/12. Under the Qing the territory of the empire grew to treble its size under ...
What were the achievements of the Qing Dynasty?
The dynasty’s cultural accomplishments included work with jade carving, painting, and porcelain; philological developments; and the development of jingxi (Peking opera).
What were the causes of the Taiping and Nian rebellions?
Subsequent rulers, however, were unable to meet the problems caused by increased population pressure and concentration of land ownership. The Manchu armies deteriorated, and popular unrest, aggravated by severe floods and famine, were factors contributing to the Taiping (1850–64) and Nian (1853–68) rebellions in the south and north, respectively. Efforts at modernization and Westernization met opposition from conservative officials especially through the efforts of the dowager empress Cixi. Bureaucratic inefficiency and corruption became widespread, a notable example being the diversion of funds intended for building a Chinese navy to instead construct an ornamental marble warship at the imperial Summer Palace outside Beijing.
Which emperor forced the Russians to abandon their fort at Albazin?
Under Kangxi (reigned 1661–1722), the second Qing emperor, the Manchus forced the Russians to abandon their fort at Albazin, located along the Manchurian border on the Amur River. In 1689 a treaty was concluded with Russia at Nerchinsk demarcating the northern extent of the Manchurian boundary at the Argun River.
When was Fan with a map depicting the provinces of China and nearby regions?
Fan with a map depicting the provinces of China and nearby regions, 1890.
What was the Qing Dynasty?
Founded by Manchu warriors, the Qing dynasty was once a continental force to be reckoned with. Stretching across the entire eastern half of Eurasia, it had tributary states from Siam to Sikkim. By the time that the last Qing emperor sat on the throne, however, it had already been the victim of multiple invasions and rebellions and was teetering on the brink of economic collapse. Read on to discover how this dramatic story unfolded.
How long did the Qing Empire last?
From 1750 to 1790, the Qing empire reached its greatest territorial extent. The Qianlong Emperor led a total of ten relentless campaigns into inner Asia which extended Qing dominion over wide stretches of land that had previously been outside of China proper.
What is the period from 1683 to 1839 called?
The period from 1683 and 1839 is known as the High Qing era . In Chinese, it’s also sometimes called the ‘Prosperous Age of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong’ (康雍乾盛世 Kāng Yōng Qián Shèngshì) in reference to the emperors who ruled over this period of good fortune.
Why were the Ming Dynasty hunted on horseback?
Renowned for their skill as mounted archers (an ability that was to come in handy when they swept out of northeastern China to shatter the Ming Dynasty), they hunted small game on horseback for both food, sport, and prestige.
How many people died in the Taiping Rebellion?
From 1850 to 1864, between 20 and 30 million people lost their lives. A melange of natural disasters and brutality on the part of Qing generals turned large swathes of China into an uninhabitable wasteland.
Where did the Manchus live before the Ming?
Before overthrowing the Ming, the Manchus were based in northern China. The first three Qing emperors lived in Mukden Palace, in present-day Shenyang. From there, they waged a relentless rebellion against the Ming.
Which countries did Qing rule?
Tibet, Hainan and Taiwan all submitted to Qing rule. Similarly, the conquest of what is today Mongolia was completed in a series of expeditions in the latter half of the 17th century. Qing armies also conquered what is now Xinjiang in a series of campaigns between 1755-1758.
Who took over the Qing Dynasty?
Following the death of Emperor Shunzhi, Emperor Kangxi took over control of the Qing Dynasty and would later enjoy one of the longest dynastic reigns in history. During his long reign, Emperor Kangxi established a policy direction for his empire and made efforts to stabilize it. This policy direction focused on territorial expansion, the continuation of the Neo-Confucian bureaucratic system, and continued trade with Europeans, even while resisting their expansion. His court was more careful than previous dynasties in its control of commerce and industry, as well as the monopolization of key industries in the empire.
How did the Qing Dynasty become so big?
The empire became big after subduing Tibet and the Xinjiang regions and inheriting Mongolia from the founders of the empire. Following these annexations, the geographical area of the Qing Dynasty Empire was second in size only to that of the Yuan Empire. Nevertheless, the ruling court of the Qing Dynasty was unable to deal with the rapidly changing world, coupled with numerous natural disasters and uprisings.
What were the literary achievements of the Qing Dynasty?
The main literary achievements of the Qing Dynasty included extremely large encyclopedias and compendiums comprising hundreds of volumes, as well as popular novels. At the end of this era, writers began to write with western style influences from the literature they had access to. Under Emperor Kangxi, the Qing court sponsored large printing projects that produced encyclopedias, histories, and literature compendiums.
What style of writing did the Qing Dynasty use?
During the Qing Dynasty writers began to write with western style influences. Simultaneously, the Qing court sponsored large printing projects that produced large encyclopedias, histories, and literature compendiums comprising hundreds of volumes and popular novels. Educated people enjoyed easier access to foreign literature and students began to travel abroad to study and produced modernistic literature. Intellectuals began to translate foreign works on politics, science, and literature.
What were the causes of the Qing Dynasty's decline?
Just as the preceding Yuan and Ming Empires, the Qing Dynasty’s decline was marked by wars, rebellions, famines, natural disasters, and invasions. These wars, rebellions, and other conflicts led to the deaths of many people and caused massive damage to the economy. Rebellions were mainly instigated by the poor and unemployed who hoped to overthrow the government and expel or kill foreigners whom they believed to be the cause of all their woes.
What was the biggest change in religion during the Qing Dynasty?
The biggest change in religion during the Qing Dynasty was the arrival of thousands of protestant and evangelical missionaries in the 1800s. By 1912, this massive influx led to the conversion of tens of thousands of people to Christianity. The missionaries were influential in the education of tens of thousands of students in western medicine and the setting up of numerous hospitals, schools, colleges, and universities.
What were the cultural heritages of the Qing Dynasty?
The Qing Dynasty left a rich cultural heritage in terms of architecture from the period. Some of the historical relics of the Qing Dynasty include the Shenyang Imperial Palace, the Summer Palace, the Forbidden City, the Chengde Summer Palace, and the Temple of Heaven.
Background
In 1636, Hong Taiji founded the Qing Dynasty and proclaimed himself the emperor of the area. In 1644, under Fulin (later as the Shunzhi Emperor), the Ming dynasty was kicked out of position as the ruling family and the chinese proclaimed the Qing dynasty as the ruling country.
Economy
In some time between Qianlong Emperor's reign, the Qing dynasty became the richest country in the world. When the Daoguang Emperor started his reign, China's economy began to decline, but in 1830 it was third in the world. The economy was a bust after multiple revolutions between 1850 and 1912.
How did the Qing emperors use the Ming system?
Officials were appointed to govern each area, using laws based on the old Ming laws. Officials were chosen through taking exams that tested their knowledge of Confucian teachings. Passing the exams was vital for anyone who wanted to be important, and Confucian culture valued writers and teachers.
How did the Qing emperors control the different groups?
They made a distinction between the interior (direct rule), where the lived, and the outer regions (indirect rule), occupied by , , Muslims and .
What cultures did Qianlong celebrate?
Qianlong tried to celebrate the Manchu, Mongol, Han, Tibetan and Muslim cultures.
What was the idea of the Qianlong Emperor?
The idea was that each people had their own space and their own culture. If they each kept to themselves, there would be peace. Disloyalty was always dealt with harshly. For example, the Qianlong Emperor executed authors and their entire families for writing things that criticised the Manchus.
What was the end of the Dzungars?
The end of the Dzungars was also the end of the great nomadic steppe empires of Central Asia. These flat grassland empires were good for nomads and their grazing animals. The Qing and Russia, both settled empires, moved into Central Asia, drawing borders and defining frontiers.
How did Yongzheng work?
Yongzheng was a very effective emperor and he worked hard to maintain peace and wealth. He made changes to government to improve communications and to make sure he always knew what was happening.
Why did Lord Macartney come to China?
When Lord Macartney, a British diplomat and statesman, arrived in China in 1793, he came with a mission to expand access to China and open up trade for the British. He met the Qianlong Emperor – but the Qianlong Emperor rejected his offer. As the Qianlong Emperor saw it, Britain had nothing his empire would need. China already had everything.
What was the Qing Dynasty?
List of emperors of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty (1636–1912) was a Manchu -led imperial Chinese dynasty and the last orthodox dynasty of China. It was officially founded in 1636 in what is now Northeast China, but only succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper in 1644.
Where was the Qing Dynasty located?
Residence. Forbidden City in Beijing. Pretender (s) Jin Yuzhang. The Qing dynasty (1636–1912) was a Manchu -led imperial Chinese dynasty and the last orthodox dynasty of China. It was officially founded in 1636 in what is now Northeast China, but only succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper in 1644.
What was the Qing emperor's name?
Like the emperors of the Ming dynasty, Qing monarchs used only one reign name and are usually known by that name, as when we speak of the " Qianlong Emperor " (r. 1735–1795) or the " Guangxu Emperor " (r. 1875–1908). Strictly speaking, referring to the Qianlong Emperor simply as "Qianlong" is wrong, because "Qianlong" was not that emperor's own name but that of his reign era. For convenience sake, however, many historians still choose to call him Qianlong (though not "Emperor Qianlong"). The only Qing emperors who are not commonly known by their reign name are the first two: Nurhaci (r. 1616–1626), who is known by his personal name, and his son and successor Hong Taiji (r. 1626–1643), whose name was a title meaning "prince Hong". Hong Taiji was the only Qing emperor to use two era names (see table).
How many Qing emperors were there?
Starting with Nurhaci, there were thirteen Qing rulers. Following the capture of Beijing in 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor (r. 1643–1661) became the first of the eleven Qing sovereigns to rule over China proper. At 61 years, the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) was the longest, though his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796), would have reigned even longer if he had not purposely ceded the throne to the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796–1820) in order not to reign longer than his grandfather. Qing emperors succeeded each other from father to son until the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875), the 11th Qing ruler, died childless in 1875. The last two emperors were chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi from other branches of the imperial clan.
Why is Qing Gaozong omitted from the table?
The table, however, omits the term "Qing", because it is understood that all the emperors listed were from that dynasty. Because each emperor's posthumous name was extremely long—that of the Shunzhi Emperor, for instance, was "Titian longyun dingtong jianji yingrui qinwen xianwu dade honggong zhiren chunxiao Zhang huangdi" 體天隆運定統建極英睿欽文顯武大德弘功至仁純孝章皇帝—the table only shows the short form.
How old was Fulin when he became Emperor?
As a compromise, the Manchu princes chose Hong Taiji's four-year-old son Fulin (the Shunzhi Emperor, r. 1643–1661) as his successor, marking the adoption of father-son succession in the Qing imperial line.
How long did the Qing Dynasty rule?
For almost 200 years, the Qing Empire was governed by adult emperors. In the last fifty years of the dynasty—from the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861 to the final abdication of the child emperor Puyi in 1912—the imperial position again became vulnerable to the power of regents, empress dowagers, imperial uncles, and eunuchs. Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) came to power through a coup that ousted eight regents who had been named by her husband, the Xianfeng Emperor. She controlled the government during the reigns of the Tongzhi (r. 1861–1875) and Guangxu (r. 1875–1908) emperors. From 1861 onwards, she was officially co-regent with Empress Dowager Ci'an, but her political role increased so much that within a few years she was taking charge of most government matters. She became sole regent in 1881 after the death of Empress Dowager Ci'an. With the assistance of eunuchs and Manchu princes, she remained regent until March 1889, when she finally let the Guangxu Emperor rule personally (he was then 28 years old). After she intervened to end the Hundred Days' Reform in September 1898, she had the emperor put under house arrest and held the reins of the Qing government until her death in 1908.
Overview
The history of the Qing dynasty began in 1636, when Manchu chieftain Hong Taiji founded the dynasty, and lasted until 1912, when Emperor Puyi abdicated the throne in response to the Xinhai Revolution. The final imperial dynasty in China, the Qing dynasty reached heights of power unlike any of the Chinese dynasties which preceded it, engaging in large-scale territorial expansion. However, the …
Formation of the Manchu state
The Qing dynasty was founded not by Han Chinese, who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by the Manchu, descendants of a sedentary farming people known as the Jurchen, a Tungusic people who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of Jilin and Heilongjiang. The Manchus are sometimes mistaken for a nomadic people, which they were not. …
Claiming the Mandate of Heaven
Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As the Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have a clear succession system. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son Hooge and Hong Taiji's half brother Dorgon. A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the Shunzhi Emperor, with Dorgon as re…
Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation
The sixty-one year reign of the Kangxi Emperor was the longest of any Chinese emperor. Kangxi's reign is also celebrated as the beginning of an era known as the "High Qing", during which the dynasty reached the zenith of its social, economic and military power. Kangxi's long reign started when he was eight years old upon the untimely demise of his father. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's …
Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors
The reigns of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1723–1735) and his son, the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. During this period, the Qing Empire ruled over 13 million square kilometres (5 million square miles) of territory. Yet, as the historian Jonathan Spence puts it, the empire by the end of the Qianlong reign was "like the sun at midday". In the midst of "many glorie…
Rebellion, unrest and external pressure
At the start of the dynasty, the Chinese empire continued to be the hegemonic power in East Asia. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the Lifan Yuan was responsible for relations with the Mongol and Tibetans in Central Asia, while the tributary system, a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and Southeas…
Self-strengthening and the frustration of reforms
Yet the dynasty rallied. Chinese generals and officials such as Zuo Zongtang led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the Tongzhi Emperor came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the Tongzhi Restoration. Their aim was to adopt Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values. Zeng Guofan, …
Reform, revolution, collapse
By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun in China, and it was growing continuously. To overcome such problems, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict in 1901 calling for reform proposals from the governors-general and governors and initiated the era of the dynasty's "New Policies", also known as the "Late Qing Reform". The edict paved the way for th…
The Founding
- To understand the story of the Qing, it's necessary to gain a basic understanding of the dynasty that preceded them: the Ming.
The Prosperous Age
- The period from 1683 and 1839 is known as the High Qing era. In Chinese, it’s also sometimes called the ‘Prosperous Age of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong’ (康雍乾盛世 Kāng Yōng Qián Shèngshì) in reference to the emperors who ruled over this period of good fortune. Shrewd Qing governance (borrowing the best practices of the Ming Confucian bureaucracy while still allowin…
The Collapse
- The reasons behind the Qing dynasty’s ultimate disintegration are manifold. However, they can be summarized as: economic mismanagement, foreign predation, elite disconnect, and consequent rebellion.
Remembering The Qing Today
- The legacy of China’s last imperial dynasty remains a point of contention to this day. One major long-term effect of Qing domination was a nascent sense of nationalism among the Han Chinese. During the waning years of the Qing empire, anti-Manchu sentiment served as a powerful motivation for those who wished to resist or reform the regime. Emphasiz...