Dependent rulers of al-Andalus [ edit]
- Musa ibn Nusair al-Lakhmi, 712 – September 714 (also governor of Ifriqiya)
- Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, September 714 – March 716
- Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi, March 716 – August 716 (*)
- al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi, August 716 – March 719
- al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, March 719 – June 721 (**)
- Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi, July 721 (*)
What is the history of Al Andalus?
Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire, under the name of al-Andalus. It was organized as a province subordinate to Ifriqiya, so, for the first few decades, the governors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir of Kairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus.
How was Al-Andalus ruled?
At first, al-Andalus was ruled by governors appointed by the Caliph, most ruling for periods of under three years. However, from 740, a series of civil wars between various Muslim groups in Iberia resulted in the breakdown of Caliphal control, with Yūsuf al-Fihri, who emerged as the main winner, effectively becoming an independent ruler .
Who were the Moors of Spain and Al Andalus?
Like others pointed out, the “Moors of Spain” or Al-Andalus simply refers to the regions in which Spain was ruled by a Muslim governing body and the Muslims never identified nor referred to themselves as “Moors”. The Christians called the Muslims collectively as Moors.
What was the main conflict of Al Andalus?
For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI.
Who ruled over Al-Andalus?
In 763 Caliph Al-Mansur of the Abbasids installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus).
Which country is Andalus now?
SpainAndalusiaAndalusia Andalucía (Spanish)CountrySpainStatute of Autonomy28 February 1980 / 18 February 2007 (current version)Capital (and largest city)SevilleProvincesAlmería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Jaén, Málaga, Granada, Huelva, Seville39 more rows
Which Caliphate established the Al-Andalus Empire?
The Umayyad EmirateThe Umayyad Emirate and the Caliphate At the start of the 8th century, in 711, Arab groups and families coming from the East entered the Iberian Peninsula, as well as Berber groups from the Maghreb, which gradually settled in the lands of al-Andalus.
How did the Muslims lose Al-Andalus?
The Muslims finally lost all power in Spain in 1492. By 1502 the Christian rulers issued an order requiring all Muslims to convert to Christianity, and when this didn't work, they imposed brutal restrictions on the remaining Spanish Muslims.
Are Andalusians Arabic?
Andalusian Arabic belongs to the pre-Hilalian dialects of the Maghrebi Arabic family, with its closest relative being Moroccan Arabic. Like other Maghrebi Arabic dialects, Andalusian does not differentiate between sedentary and Bedouin varieties.
Who conquered Spain in Islam?
Ṭāriq ibn ZiyādṬāriq ibn Ziyād, also spelled Tarik Ibn Zeyad, (died c. 720), Berber general who led the Muslim conquest of Spain.
Who was the first caliph of Al-Andalus?
'Abd al-Rahman IIIUnder 'Abd al-Rahman III (reigned 912–61), who proclaimed himself caliph, al-Andalus grew into an empire with a diverse religious and ethnic population. From 945 to 1010, the court was centered in Madinat al-Zahra, a palace city on the outskirts of Córdoba built between 936 and 940 by 'Abd al-Rahman III.
Why did Islam conquer Spain?
The invasion of Spain was the result both of a Muslim readiness to invade and of a call for assistance by one of the Visigothic factions, the “Witizans.” Having become dispossessed after the death of King Witiza in 710, they appealed to Mūsā for support against the usurper Roderick.
How many years Muslims ruled India?
'Muslims Ruled India For 800 Years, This Is Proof For Those Asking Papers': Controversial Leader Akbaruddin Owaisi.
Who are the Moors today?
Today, the term Moor is used to designate the predominant Arab-Amazigh ethnic group in Mauritania (which makes up more than two-thirds of the country's population) and the small Arab-Amazigh minority in Mali.
What happened to Al-Andalus?
In the 11th century, when European Christians began to reconquer the peninsula, Al-Andalus, or Andalusia, came to mean only the area still under Muslim control and thus became permanently attached to the modern-day region.
When was Andalusia taken over?
The Romans, led by Scipio Africanus, conquered Andalusia between 210 and 206 bce, and the region eventually became the Roman province of Baetica.
What was the name of the king that razed Santiago de Compostela?
He sacked the capitals of virtually every Christian kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, and in 997 he razed Santiago de Compostela. Although Hishām II retained the nominal title of caliph, in 994 Manṣūr began to style himself as al-Malik al-Karīm (“Noble King”) as a reflection of the power he wielded.
How did Umayyad anger the Arab aristocracy?
He lost control of the Berber generals and angered the Arab aristocracy by having himself proclaimed successor to the caliph. In 1009 a revolution in Cordóba led to the deposition of Hishām II and murder of Sanchuelo. No Umayyad could control the Berbers, who sacked the capital and began to demand land in Al-Andalus.
Where was Roderick killed?
Roderick was killed in battle near Arcos de la Frontera, on July 23, 711. Ṭāriq at once marched on Toledo (Ṭulayṭulah) and occupied it, probably while the family of Witiza was still negotiating with Mūsā and the caliph.
What countries did the Byzantine Empire conquer?
Initial Muslim conquests. The Byzantine Empire, weakened by its wars with Persia and the alienation of its Coptic Christian and Jewish populations, lost Syria (636) and Egypt (640) to the nascent Muslim caliphate, which then invaded Libya.
What is the name of the Muslim kingdom in Spain?
Al-Andalus, also called Muslim Spain, Muslim kingdom that occupied much of the Iberian Peninsula from 711 ce until the collapse of the Spanish Umayyad dynasty in the early 11th century. The Arabic name Al-Andalus was originally applied by the Muslims ( Moors) to the entire Iberian Peninsula; it likely refers to the Vandals who occupied ...
What is an encyclopedia editor?
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. ...
Who led the expedition to Morocco?
From there ʿUqbah ibn Nafiʿ (Sīdī ʿUqbah) led an expedition to Morocco ( c. 680-682). ʿUqbah was killed on the return journey, and it was not until 705 that the caliph al-Walid appointed a new governor, Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr.
What was the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula?
The southern part of the Iberian peninsula was under Islamic rule for seven hundred years. In medieval history, " al-Andalus " ( Arabic: الأندلس ) was the name given to the parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Arab and North African Muslims (given the generic name of Moors ), at various times in the period between 711 and 1492.
When did the Abbasid Revolution take place?
In 750, the Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus. An Umayyad prince, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to al-Andalus and set up the independent Emirate of Cordoba .
Is Al-Andalus a province?
In the administrative structure of the Umayyad Caliphate, al-Andalus was formally a province subordinate to the Umayyad governor of Kairouan in Ifriqiya, rather than directly dependent on the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus. Most of the governors ( wali) of al-Andalus from 711 to 756 were provincial deputies appointed by the governor in Kairouan, ...
Who conquered Hispania?
Most of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania was conquered by the Umayyads in 711-18. Hispania (or al-Andalus) was organized as a single province ( wilayah ), with local provincial capital at Córdoba, and integrated into their empire.
Who was the Caliph of 929?
Abdallah ibn Muhammad, 888–912. Abd ar-Rahman III, 912–929. In 929, the Emir Abd ar-Rahman III, proclaimed himself the Caliph, the leader of the Islamic world, in competition with the Abbasid and the Fatimid caliphates which were also active at this time. Abd ar-Rahman III, as caliph, 929–961.
Who appointed the governors of Al-Andalus?
Most of the governors ( wali) of al-Andalus from 711 to 756 were provincial deputies appointed by the governor in Kairouan, although a significant number of Andalusian governors during this period were chosen locally, with or without Kairouan's consent.
Etymology of al-Andalus
The etymology of the word "al-Andalus" is disputed. Furthermore, the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name changed over the centuries.
Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba
The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, present day Cathedral of Cordoba. The mosque is one of the finest examples of Arab-Islamic architecture in the Umayyad style.
First Taifa Period
The Córdoba Caliphate effectively collapsed during a ruinous civil war between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031. Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of mostly independent states called taifas.
Society
A manuscript page of the Qur'an in the script developed in al-Andalus, 12th century.
Culture
The interiors of the Alhambra in Spain are decorated with arabesque designs.
External links
Paper by Georg Bossong evaluating proposals for the etymology of "al-Andalus". In German.
Why did the Almohads soften in Iberia?
Over the decades, the seemingly fanatical stance of the Almohads softened in Iberia, possibly because al-Andalus was ruled as a province by the pliable governors of the Caliphate centered in Morocco. Furthermore, in some cases, the Iberian Moors began to occasionally enact truces with their Christian neighbors, as means to autonomously protect themselves while also providing (sometimes unintentionally) strategic advantages to their opponents. However, the overarching religio-political force of the Reconquista was hard to ignore for even the most broad-minded of the Andalusian Moors.
How many layers of military did the Caliphate of Cordoba have?
Mirroring the contemporary military organization of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire, the Caliphate of Cordoba maintained its three ‘layers’ of forces, with the elite, household, and professional units being based in and around the city itself. The provincial army and volunteer forces formed the second category, while troops and mercenaries specifically recruited for campaigns formed the third.
Why did the syncretic element of Al-Andalus start unraveling?
In consequence, the very syncretic element of al-Andalus was starting to unravel due to religious differences and even discriminations on both sides. Moreover, the rigid tenets of the Almohads forced many of the rich Mozarabs (Christians living under the Moorish rule) and Andalusian Jews to migrate to the north.
What religions did the people of Iberia follow?
As for Iberia itself, the society of al-Andalus was mainly divided into three religions – Islam, Christianity, and Judaism; but the people considered themselves as Andalusians.
How big was the Andalusian ship?
By the 9th-10th century, the Andalusian ships were rather known for their imposing sizes, with one particular cargo specimen captured by their Shia rivals across the Mediterranean – the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, said to be a who pping 272 ft in length and 108 ft in width.
What was the fourth group of the Andalusians?
The fourth group among the Andalusians (or Moors) comprised the Mozarabs, basically composed of the local Iberian Christians who lived under their Muslim overlords. They were followed by the Andalusian Jews from various backgrounds, including both North African and mixed ancestry.
Why were the professional forces known as Jund?
As for their prestige, it comes as no surprise that the professional forces (known as jund in the 8th-9th century) were given prominence in terms of payment – possibly because many of these units claimed their Syrian heritage (thereby upholding the Umayyad legacy), while the provincial baladis were considered somewhat inferior. The Moors were also known to recruit reserves ( nusara) from both the Syrian and baladi regiments, although not much is known about their military structure during the early phases of the Emirate of Cordoba.
Why did the Nasrids continue to prosper?
Yet, Granada continued to prosper due to the influx of Muslim and Jewish scholars, artisans, merchants, and farmers from territories newly acquired by the Christians. Nasrid ceramics, silks, and other luxury goods, were very popular among the Christian elite in the north, as they could not produce such items themselves.
Why was Ibn Tumart expelled from Mecca?
He was a member of the Masmuda tribe of Amazighs (Berbers) in the Atlas Mountains. He was expelled from the city for being overly critical of others. He reportedly went to Baghdad, where he studied with eminent religious scholars.
What was the name of the city that was conquered by the Muslim people in the 13th century?
By the mid-13th century, Córdoba, Seville, and other Muslim cities had been conquered, and Al-Andalus was about one-eighth its former size. It existed only in areas controlled by the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. The surrender of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs in 1492 marked the end of a once-magnificent Hispano-Islamic civilization.
How long did the Umayyad Amirate last?
The Umayyad amirate lasted until 929 CE. An Umayyad descendant named Abd al-Rahman (III), who was not content with the title of amir, declared himself caliph. In doing so, he openly challenged the Abbasids’ claim. He also countered the Shi’i Fatimids in North Africa, who had recently taken the title of caliph, as well.
What was the significance of the 10th century Umayyad caliphate?
The 10th century Umayyad caliphate in Spain represents the pinnacle of unity, power, wealth, and scientific and artistic achievement in Al-Andalus.
What weakened the Muslim hold on Iberia?
However, unlike these other areas, it was the political and military shifts in Al-Andalus that ultimately weakened Muslims’ hold on Iberia. Initially, almost the entire peninsula came under Umayyad rule.
What did the Muslims call the new land?
The Muslims called this new land “ Al-Andalus .”. Tariq ibn Ziyad entering Spain (Theodor Hosemann on Wikimedia). In 750 CE, the Abbasid family rallied support among opponents of the Umayyads and overthrew the dynasty. The Abbasids were a noble clan descended from one of Muhammad’s uncles.
When did Al Andalus conquer Castile?
Al Andalus in the late 11th century, with main taifa kingdoms. In 1212, the Almohads were defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena, the mountain range that separates Andalusia and Castile.
What did the King of Spain put in the tower?
Another has a more prophetic ring. A certain king of Spain had deposited in a tower an urn containing a parchment. He sealed the tower with a padlock and imposed on his successors, each in turn, the obligation of respecting the integrity of the tower and of adding another padlock to its door.
What did Roderic read on the parchment?
There he saw painted on the walls figures of Arab horsemen bearing scimitars and lances. Opening the urn, he read what was written on the parchment: that whenever the tower was violated the country would be invaded and conquered by the people painted on the walls.
What was the Muslim army after Roderic's defeat?
After Roderic’s defeat, the Muslim armies (now reinforced by more soldiers from across the straits of Gibraltar) faced little opposition as they moved rapidly north. There was some urban defiance –Mérida in particular, Córdoba, Zaragoza– which appears to have cost their inhabitants dearly, and was probably a disincentive for others to follow suit. But equally productive and less demanding, since it did not require the establishment of garrisons, was a peaceful agreement between the conquerors and conquered.
What is Al-Andalus history?
Al-Andalus. History of the Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain. The Arrival of the Moors. Hidden in some bushes outside the walls of Toledo, a young man watches a beautiful young woman as she bathes in the river Tagus, Eventually overcome by passion, he seduces her. She complains to her father who is the governor of the far away outpost of Ceuta, ...
Where did Tariq Ibn Ziyad land?
What we do know is that in 711 an invading force of Muslims, led by a general named Tariq ibn Ziyad, landed near Gibraltar. In the following year, Tariq’s forces engaged Roderic and his army somewhere in the hills behind Tarifa or along the Guadalete River in the western part of the region we now know as Andalusia.
When did the Caliphate of Cordoba become a caliphate?
It only became a caliphate in 929 under Abd al-Rahman III, and remained a caliphate until the fall of Cordoba in 1031. A case in point is a treaty arranged with a certain Theodemir, the Visigoth chief of Murcia.
Why did Andalusis travel to the Central Lands?
By traveling to the central lands of Islamdom for commerce, in search of knowledge, and to carry out the pilgrimage, Andalusis became aware of and integrated themselves into the Muslim world of scholarship.
How did the Nasrid kingdom survive?
From the middle of the thirteenth century until 1492, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada managed to survive by taking advantage of the internal dissensions both among the Christian kingdoms and those Muslim states that had been created in North Africa after the demise of the Almohad empire.
What were the characteristics of the 10th century?
Political unity, general stability, economic flourishing, and cultural achievements were some of the traits of the tenth century, although the minority of the third Umayyad caliph and the military reforms carried out by his powerful chamberlain, al-Man ṣū r ibn Abi ʿ Amir, eventually opened the door to civil war.
What was the name of the Muslim kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula?
Al-Andalus was the name used by the Muslim population of the Iberian Peninsula for the territory that was under Muslim rule from the times of the conquest in 711 ce until the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492. That territory varied through the centuries. During the Umayyad period (eighth – tenth centuries), Muslims ruled most of the regions of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of part of the lands situated north of the river Duero and south of the Pyrenees, where Christians managed to establish small independent kingdoms. A major shift in the balance of power between Muslims and Christians occurred in 1085, when Toledo, the former Visigothic capital, was lost forever to the Muslims when it fell into the hands of the king of Castile, Alfonso VI.
Why did the number of Arabs increase?
The number of the Arabs increased when a Syrian army sent by the Umayyad caliph in Damascus to suppress a Berber revolt in North Africa sought refuge in al-Andalus. The first Umayyad ruler, ʿ Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n I, attracted other members of his family to his capital.
Who was the leader of the Almohads?
The Almohad movement was founded by the Berber Messianic reformer Ibn Tumart; his successor as political leader was also a Berber who adopted an Arabic genealogy in order to proclaim himself caliph. The movement started in the south of Morocco in the first decades of the twelfth century, expanding from there to dominate the whole of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia) and al-Andalus. Aiming at a radical political and religious revival, the Almohads found support among disparate groups in Andalusi society who shared some of their puritanical reformist policies, although it was mostly the use of violence that helped them suppress, at least for some time, the opposition of those groups and individuals that either disagreed with their program or were against its more extremist aspects. Although the Almohads were able for some time to check Christian military advance, their armies suffered a major defeat in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the year 1212. This defeat had been preceded and was followed by the loss of major towns in what was left of al-Andalus: Silves was conquered in 1190, Cordova in 1236, Valencia in 1238, Murcia in 1243, and Seville in 1248.
When was the Umayyad caliphate abolished?
The administrative centralization achieved during the tenth century disappeared with the collapse of the (second) Umayyad caliphate. It was abolished in 1031, but before that date independent Muslim kingdoms had already arisen, the most important being those of Seville, Toledo, and Zaragoza.
What was the name of the Spanish kingdom that was divided into two parts?
After the Muslim conquest, Andalusia became part of the independent Umayyad caliphate of Córdoba, which was founded by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III in 929. After the breakup of this unified Spanish Muslim state in the early 11th century, Andalusia was divided into a number of small kingdoms, or taifas, the largest of which were Málaga, Sevilla, and Córdoba. These principalities, which warred incessantly among themselves, had begun falling to Christian forces based in León and Castile in the 11th century when they were reinvigorated by a new Muslim invasion from North Africa, that of the Berber Almoravids, who were able to establish centralized rule over Muslim Spain from about 1086 to 1147. The Almoravids were in turn succeeded by another force of Muslim invaders from North Africa, the Almohads, who ruled over Andalusia from about 1147 to 1212.
Why is Andalusia considered the golden age?
Despite its political instability, scholars have seen the Moorish period as the golden age of Andalusia because of its economic prosperity and its brilliant cultural flowering. Agriculture, mining, and industry flourished as never before, and the region carried on a rich commerce with North Africa and the Levant.
What happened in 1708?
In the great winter of 1708–09, rivers froze, even the swift-flowing Rhône, and wolves roamed the French countryside; after late frosts, which killed vines and olive trees, the…. …in the mountains of northern Andalusia focused on the ecclesiastical granges of the Reconquista, developing into small villages.
What happened to the Almohads?
The Almohads’ power in southern Spain disintegrated after their defeat by Christian armies led by King Alfonso VIII of Castile at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The petty Muslim states that reemerged in this power vacuum were unable to mount a unified resistance to Christian reconquest, and by 1251 Ferdinand III of Castile had reconquered all of Andalusia except the Muslim kingdom of Granada, which survived until its capture by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. All of Andalusia was incorporated into the Christian kingdom of Castile.
What is the history of Andalusia?
History of Andalusia. Andalusia has a long history. Agriculture and complex society had developed in the region by 4000 bce. During the 9th century bce the Phoenicians founded the coastal colony of Gadir (now Cádiz), and by the 5th century bce Carthaginians and Greeks had colonized the coast, while the indigenous Iberian peoples ...
What is the Arabic name for the Iberian Peninsula?
The Arabic name Al-Andalus was originally applied by the Muslims (Moors) to the entire Iberian Peninsula. It probably means “Country of the Vandals.” In the 11th century, when the Christians began to reconquer the peninsula, Al-Andalus, or Andalusia, came to mean only the area still under Muslim control and thus became permanently attached to the modern-day region.
Who conquered Andalusia?
The Romans, led by Scipio Africanus, conquered Andalusia between 210 and 206 bce, and the region eventually became the Roman province of Baetica. Flourishing under Roman rule, it was the birthplace of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian and the writers Lucan and Seneca.
Overview
Independent rulers of al-Andalus
In 750, the Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus. An Umayyad prince, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to al-Andalus and set up the independent Emirate of Cordoba.
• Abd ar-Rahman I, 756–788
Al-Ala ibn Mughith al-Judhami (763), Abbasid counter-claimant Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri al-Siqlabi (777), Abbasid counter-claimant
Dependent rulers of al-Andalus
Most of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania was conquered by the Umayyads in 711-18. Hispania (or al-Andalus) was organized as a single province (wilayah), with local provincial capital at Córdoba, and integrated into their empire. In the administrative structure of the Umayyad Caliphate, al-Andalus was formally a province subordinate to the Umayyad governor of Kairouan in Ifriqiya, rather than directly dependent on the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus. Most of the governors (wali) …
See also
• Caliphate of Córdoba
Introduction – The Islamic Invasion of The Iberian Peninsula
- Al-Andalus (Arabic: الأندلس) was the Arabic name given to a nation in the parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims (given the generic name of Moors), at various times in the period between 711 and 1492. Following the conquest, al-Andalus was divided into five administrative areas roughly corresponding to Andalusia, Galicia...
The Cultural History of The Moors
The Military History of The Moors
The Political History of The Moors
The Decline – Expulsion of The Iberian Moors