Bulls are a recurrent them in Mesopotamian art. They appear in Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian art as symbols of strength and masculinity and are associated with thunder and heavens. In Mesopotamian art rams, ibexes, goats and lions appear as male figures sacred to God.
What does the bull represent in Mesopotamian art?
The image of a bull in art did not mean the god had taken the form of a bull but was a metaphor for the presence of the god. Humans and animals often appear together in Mesopotamian art, but they are also shown acting like each other.
Why are animals important in Mesopotamian art?
For as many humans as are found in Mesopotamian art, there are just as many animals. Animals are a major focus in Mesopotamian art because animals were a major part of Mesopotamian life. The people of this region were shepherds, rode horses in battle, used pack animals to travel, and hunted for both food and recreation.
Why are bulls sacred in different cultures?
There are varying beliefs about cattle in societies and religions with cows, bulls, and calves being worshiped at various stages of history. As such, numerous peoples throughout the world have at one point in time honored bulls as sacred. In the Sumerian religion, Marduk is the "bull of Utu ". In Hinduism, Shiva 's steed is Nandi, the Bull.
What is the significance of the bull in the Minoan religion?
The Significance of the Bull in the Minoan Religion. The Minoans ruled on the island of Crete, south of the Greek mainland in the Mediterranean Sea, from 2000 to 1600 BCE. Their sophisticated culture thrived because of their powerful naval fleet.
What does a bull symbolize in art?
Traditionally, the bull is thought to symbolise stamina, fertility and hard work. It is strong and sturdy. Above all else, it is a complexly fragile symbol of power. Some critics have speculated that Picasso felt many personal parallels with the bull, incorporating it into his work as a symbolic form of self-portrait.
What does a bull symbolize?
Seen as a symbol of wealth and abundance, the bull was often sacrificed during ancient rituals, people hoping to secure the gods' goodwill. The bull also stands as a symbol of stubbornness, ferocity, tyranny, brutality.
What did the bull represent in ancient civilizations?
The people of Crete, like those of many other ancient societies, recognised the bull as a symbol of strength, and probably believed that bull's blood had certain magical properties.
What is significant about the use of animal images in ancient Mesopotamia?
Animal imagery was used to express fertility and abundance. Animal images were used to convey many things in the ancient world, often animals were used as symbols of power.
What are bulls known for?
More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows) bulls have long been an important symbol in many cultures, and play a significant role in beef ranching, dairy farming, and a variety of other cultural activities, including bullfighting and bull riding.
What does a bull head represent?
Some Native American tribes believe that the bull skull is a symbol of life-long protection from all natural elements. Today, the image still represents the attributes of the bull, such as courage, toughness, and agility. Some other meanings and attributes associated with bull skull images are: Strength.
What did the bull symbolize in ancient Mesopotamia?
The bull could therefore broadly be associated with power, authority and strength, and with fertility. The bull could also be both a symbol and an attribute of a god (Seidl 2011-13, p. 180).
Why are bulls so important to Minoan civilization?
The bull was an important symbol to the people of Crete. It can be seen on pottery, frescos, and coins of the time. The bull represented the sun and the power of light. For the Minoans, the bull also served as a symbol of power and might, particularly the power of man over nature.
Why was the bull used in arts during the prehistoric period?
By the artist's sacred depiction of the bull, the gods were pleased and thus bestowed good fortune upon the people. This type of painting contained far more emotions than were present in the actual bull. In so doing, these cultures humanized the character of the bull. ties of these animals.
Which animal appears in Mesopotamian art as a symbol of power?
The male concept is the simplest: the link with the bull seems clear, chosen for his virility, strength, and power. This animal acts as a symbol throughout the evolution of Mesopotamian art: horns, arranged by pairs, are linked to important figures, either gods themselves or deified kings.
What different things did animals represent in Mesopotamian art?
In Mesopotamian art, animals appear both with humans and alone, indicating their prominence in ancient culture. Certain animals were respected for their strength, speed, or ferocity and appear in art as representations of those ideas.
What symbolizes Mesopotamia?
The Rod and ring symbol is a symbol that is depicted on Mesopotamian stelas, cylinder seals and reliefs. It is held by a god or goddess and in most cases is being offered to a king who is standing, often making a sacrifice, or otherwise showing respect.
The Early Cultures of Mesopotamian Art
The region now known as Iraq was once called Sumer during the Early Bronze Age. Despite the earliest recorded historical events only dating back to around 2900 BCE, scholars today think that Sumer was first inhabited by people called the Ubaidians sometime between 4500 and 4000 BCE.
Ceramics in Mesopotamian Art
Ancient Mesopotamian arts such as ceramics began to see shifts in variety and styles in the fourth millennium BCE due to certain technological advancements such as the potter’s wheel.
Sculpture in Mesopotamia
For more than 2000 years, Mesopotamian art and sculpture had been created for political and devotional reasons, however, the method in which those purposes were conveyed has differed greatly from one period to the next.
Mesopotamian and Babylonian Architecture
To the ancient people of Mesopotamia, the craft of architecture was a divine gift from the gods. A lack of suitable building stone in the region made clay and sun-baked bricks the material of choice for building structures.
Frequently Asked Questions
Mesopotamia refers to a region from ancient antiquity which is now known as the countries of Iran, Turkey, and bits of Iraq and Syria, mostly situated between the Tigres/Euphrates River systems and their associated canals.
What did bulls represent in Mesopotamian art?
For example, bulls often represented the presence of the god of thunder. Animals were so important in Mesopotamian art that many figures contained both human and animal traits; something called anthropomorphism by art historians.
Why are animals important to Mesopotamian art?
Animals are a major focus in Mesopotamian art because animals were a major part of Mesopotamian life. The people of this region were shepherds, rode horses in battle, used pack animals to travel, and hunted for both food and recreation.
What did Mesopotamian art depict?
Ancient Mesopotamian art often depicted humans, especially kings or other rulers. These people were important and wealthy enough to pay artists to depict them, or their deeds, in art. Although there were several styles that developed across Mesopotamia, a few common characteristics jump out in the representation of human figures, especially powerful men. Ruling figures very often appeared in long, flowing garments, contrary to the outfit of a worker, and usually wore some sort of headdress and held a weapon.
What are the traits of animals in art?
Animals appeared in art with people and alone and often represented certain traits that animals embodied, like strength, speed, or ferocity. Animals in art could also represent a supernatural power.
What was the main focus of Mesopotamia's art?
Two very common focuses of Mesopotamian art were humans and animals, because these were each of almost equal importance to society.
What is the name of the deity with the parts of a bull or lion?
A common example of this was the Lammasu, a protective deity with the parts of a bull or lion, eagle, and human.
Where was Mesopotamia located?
Ancient Mesopotamia. In the region of the Near/Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is a place known in ancient times as Mesopotamia. The people of Mesopotamia developed some of the earliest advanced civilizations in the world, with large cities, complex political systems, and lots and lots of art.
Who is the bull headed?
comedy. Bull headed. Niels Bjerre. Niels Bjerre Jorgensen, born 1954, educated architect, worked for many years at the Steno Museum in Aarhus, Denmark (science and medical museum), with a broad range of tasks: exhibition planning, web updating, graphic and promotional tasks, workshop, planetarium operating and...
Who translated the Great Fatted Bull?
When I read “The Great Fatted Bull, a Sumerian murder mystery” translated by Jerald Jack Starr (reference below), I was thrilled to find that this exact type of bad master is described in detail.
What was the Satire of Mesopotamia?
Satire in Mesopotamia: Unravelling the Bull Headed Lyre of Ur. Many of us tend to think that the people of early cultures were less sophisticated than us. The wealthiest people may have lived lives of luxury with gold and slaves, but admittedly we cannot really imagine how everyday life was in detail.
Where is the bull headed lyre?
Full shot of the Bull Headed Lyre found in the Sumerian Royal Tombs of Ur, being painted at the Penn Museum. ( Penn Museum ) The Bull Headed Lyre was found in the Sumerian Royal tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia, in the 1920s. It is possible that the images depicted belong to stories and fairy tales that were well known to the Mesopotamians/Sumerians.
Where was the bull lyre found?
Top image: Left: Front angle of the reconstructed Bull Headed Lyre found in the Sumerian Royal Tombs of Ur in Mesopotamia, c. 2500 BC. Source: Penn Museum.
What does the scorpion tail reveal about the goat?
The scorpion tail reveals that his nature is to destroy others for his own benefit, and this is why he owns so much. This is a rich man, who has not been characterized flatteringly. Nor is his servant, the goat, who is so focused on pleasing his master that he holds not just one but two chalices ready for him. The goat looks so servile and smarmy, that it is easy to lose respect for him.
What does a goat look like?
The goat looks so servile and smarmy, that it is easy to lose respect for him. Furthermore, in Mesopotamian art the goat figure is often seen depicted standing on its hind legs, with the front legs up a stem of a bush in more noble scenes. But in this depiction, he has lost that dignity.
What is the sacred bull?
As such, numerous peoples throughout the world have at one point in time honored bulls as sacred. In the Sumerian religion, Marduk is the "bull of Utu ". In Hinduism, Shiva 's steed is Nandi, the Bull. The sacred bull survives in the constellation Taurus.
Who painted the bull apis?
A large statue of the sacred bull Apis. The Procession of the Bull Apis by Frederick Arthur Bridgman, oil on canvas, 1879. There are varying beliefs about cattle in societies and religions with cows, bulls, and calves being worshiped at various stages of history.
What is the mythological bovine?
Another Zoroastrian mythological bovine is Hadhayans, a gigantic bull so large that it could straddle the mountains and seas that divide the seven regions of the earth, and on whose back men could travel from one region to another. In medieval times, Hadhayans also came to be known as Srīsōk (Avestan * Thrisaok, "three burning places"), which derives from a legend in which three "Great Fires" were collected on the creature's back. Yet another mythological bovine is that of the unnamed creature in the Cow's Lament, an allegorical hymn attributed to Zoroaster himself, in which the soul of a bovine ( geush urvan) despairs over her lack of protection from an adequate herdsman. In the allegory, the cow represents humanity's lack of moral guidance, but in later Zoroastrianism, Geush Urvan became a yazata representing cattle. The 14th day of the month is named after her and is under her protection.
What is the name of the sacrifice that was burnt?
The Canaanite (and later Carthaginian) statue to which sacrifices were burnt, either as a deity or a type of sacrifice – Moloch – was referred to as a horned man, and likened to Cronus by the Romans. There may be a connection between sacrifice to the Cretan horned man Minotaur and Cronus himself. Both Baʿal and El were associated with the bull in Ugaritic texts, as it symbolized both strength and fertility.
What is the meaning of the bull-leaping fresco?
Crete. The Bull-Leaping Fresco: Knossos. Bulls were a central theme in the Minoan civilization, with bull heads and bull horns used as symbols in the Knossos palace. Minoan frescos and ceramics depict bull-leaping, in which participants of both sexes vaulted over bulls by grasping their horns.
What is the bull in Egypt?
In Egypt, the bull was worshiped as Apis, the embodiment of Ptah and later of Osiris. A long series of ritually perfect bulls were identified by the god's priests, housed in the temple for their lifetime, then embalmed and encased in a giant sarcophagus. A long sequence of monolithic stone sarcophagi was housed in the Serapeum, and was rediscovered by Auguste Mariette at Saqqara in 1851. The bull was also worshipped as Mnevis, the embodiment of Atum - Ra, in Heliopolis.
Which Roman mystery cult had a sacrificial bull?
Another Roman mystery cult in which a sacrificial bull played a role was that of the 1st–4th century Mithraic Mysteries. In the so-called " tauroctony " artwork of that cult ( cultus ), and which appears in all its temples, the god Mithras is seen to slay a sacrificial bull.
What is the most beautiful piece of art recovered from Mesopotamia?
The Bull Lyre. One of the most beautiful pieces of art recovered from Mesopotamia is the Bull Lyre. Found in the tomb of Queen Puabi (c. 2680 BC), the lyre was meant to help the queen fend off loneliness in, and on to the journey to, the afterlife. The lyre is 112cm high, 73cm long, and the body is 7cm wide.
Which civilizations left behind beautiful examples of their art?
The Indus River civilization and the Harappan civilization, which encompassed southeastern Pakistan and northwestern India, were both well established by 2700 BC. Each of these civilizations left behind beautiful examples of their art. The Egyptians left the pyramids and other fantastic memorials to their dead.
What is the standard of Mesopotamia made of?
The Standard is made from red limestone and lapis lazuli (which forms the blue background). These materials were not cheap, and the mosaic was prepared for the tomb of a king, Ur-Pabilsag, who died around 2550 BC. The mosaic is a partial story of his life and reign and gives us an insight into Mesopotamian culture.
How big is the Mesopotamian mosaic?
Originally believed to be covering a hollow, four-sided box, the mosaic is actually quite small – 8.5 inches wide and 19.5 inches long – but provides great detail about aspects of life in ancient Mesopotamia.
What is the significance of the victory stele?
The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin commemorates the triumph of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin over the Lullubi who lived in the Zagros Mountains of present-day Iran. We can tell a lot about King Naram-Sin just from looking at this stele. Most of the military/triumphant friezes of Mesopotamia and later are horizontal, with the king marching or riding at the front or rear of a procession of soldiers, priests, and/or prisoners. In this case, the stele depicts the victory of Naram-Sin in an upward, semi-triangular fashion, with the king at its apex and much larger than the figures below him, which decrease in size as you go closer to the bottom of the stone.
Which ancient civilization controlled most of the navigable parts of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers?
Another of the ancient Mesopotamian cultures was that of Akkadia, which ruled much of Mesopotamia from approximately 2334 BC to 2154 BC. The Akkadians controlled most of the length of the navigable parts of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which gave them great power.
How big was the White Temple?
Here, priests would offer prayers and sacrifices to the gods, and receive messages from the deities themselves. The White Temple was 40 feet high (12 meters), built of brick (usable stone was rare in the region), and comprised an area of 56 x 72 square feet (17 x 22 square meters).
What was the art of Mesopotamia?
The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that, with some exceptions, painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculptures were also painted. Cylinder seals have survived in large numbers, many including complex and detailed scenes despite their small size.
What was the first great creative age of Mesopotamia?
It saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia, and the beginnings of Sumerian civilization, and also the first "great creative age" of Mesopotamian art. Slightly earlier, the northern city of Tell Brak, today in Syria, also saw urbanization, and the development of a temple with regional significance.
When was the Hassuna culture?
Hassuna culture (6000–5000 BC, Northern Mesopotamia) Main article: Hassuna culture. The Hassuna culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia dating to the early sixth millennium BC. It is named after the type site of Tell Hassuna in Iraq.
What is the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia?
Prehistoric Mesopotamia. Area of the Fertile Crescent, (c. 7500 BC), with main Pre-Pottery Neolithic period sites. The north and northwest of Mesopotamia were already settled by humans; the center and south, with insufficient natural rainfall, were not.
What influences can be seen in the Pre-Dynastic Art of Ancient Egypt?
Influences can be seen in the Pre-Dynastic Art of Ancient Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt, and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.
When did Mesopotamia become a highland?
The highland regions of Mesopotamia were occupied since the Neanderthal times, for example at the site of Shanidar Cave (65,000–35,000 years ago), but with no known artistic creation. The first artistic productions of Mesopotamia appear in the area of Upper Mesopotamia only, at the end of the Neolithic during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period, with simple representations of humans and animals as well as megaliths (9,500–8,000 BC). This succeeds an earlier period of development in the Levant, as in the Hayonim Cave, were carvings of animals such as horses are known from the earliest dates of the Upper Paleolithic, with dates ranging from 40,000 to 18,500 BP.
What was the first type of dress in Sumerian art?
Pre-Dynastic dress (4000-2700 BC): kilts and "net-dresses". The earliest type of dress attested in early Sumerian art is not the kaunakes, but rather a sort of kilt or "net dress" which is quite closely fitting the lower body, while the upper body remains bare.
What is Mesopotamian art?
Mesopotamian Art: A Long History of Skilled Craftsmen. A Mesopotamian carved relief depicting hunting a lion. Mesopotamia—a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system—housed the world’s first urban civilization with a sophisticated cultural sphere which included music, art, and literature. ...
Why is Mesopotamian art so diverse?
Because the history of Mesopotamian art is rich with conquests and a multitude of reigning bodies, the art that continues to be uncovered by archaeologists is diverse and far-reaching.
What did the Mesopotamian civilization do?
Mesopotamian Art and Architecture. The act of creating art predates the civilization of Mesopotamia; however, their innovations and advances are significant. The Mesopotamians began creating art on a larger scale, often in the form of grandiose architecture and metalwork.
How many stories is the Tower of Babel?
Originally seven stories high, it is believed to have been used as inspiration for the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, those who inhabited the vast region of Mesopotamia developed an incredibly sophisticated system of art and architecture.
What were the statues of the temples?
Sculptures served as adornment or ritual equipment for the temples. Though identifiable cult statues —those that were venerated or worshipped for the deity that they represented—of gods or goddesses have yet to be found, some had common themes worth mentioning. Male statues typically stood with their hands clasped in prayer, and were clad with a woolen skirt. Female statues were more varied, but many wore a heavy coil arranged from ear to ear and a chignon (hair knot at the nape of the neck). Sometimes, the hair was concealed by a headdress.
How many statues are there in Lagash?
Some of the most famous examples are the Statues of Gudea, a group of approximately twenty seven statues that depicted the ruler of the state of Lagash (who reigned between 2144 and 2124 B.C.).
What is the art that came out of this civilization?
The artwork to come out of this civilization is reflective of its rich history, whose subject matter was heavily influenced by its sociopolitical structure, military conquests, organized religion, and natural environment.
What is the significance of the bull?
The significance of the bull sheds light on the Minoan relationship with nature and indicates how their great civilization dwindled from the world stage.
What did the bull cult emphasize?
According to McInerney, the bull cult emphasized the importance of man’s supremacy over nature, a fact that brings with it a bit of irony given the Minoan civilization’s fall through a series of natural catastrophes.
What happened after the defeat of the Minotaur?
The defeat of the Minotaur, who could be viewed as the prince of Minos — and Theseus’ taking of Ariadne away with him after the defeat of the Minotaur — signals a reversal of power with the fall of the Minoans and the rise of the Mycenaean Greeks.
What is the bull leaping cult?
Bull leaping, in addition to the myriad representations of the bull on frescoes, coins, and vases, was one of many practices in the Cretan bull cult. According to McInerney, since there is no written documentation of this cult, the exact details of the rituals are most likely lost even though a variety of ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians, participated in similar practices. According to McInerney, the bull cult emphasized the importance of man’s supremacy over nature, a fact that brings with it a bit of irony given the Minoan civilization’s fall through a series of natural catastrophes.
What is the meaning of the word "bull-leaping"?
According to Jeremy McInerney in “Bulls and Bull-leaping in the Minoan World,” the act of bull-leaping involved the tension between the bull's ferocity with man’s ability to overcome it.
Where did the Minotaur come from?
It is possible that the Minotaur figure itself comes from a practice of dancers wearing bull’s masks depicted in coins and vases recovered on Crete. The Minotaur (which translated means “bull of Minos”) could be a literary demonization of Minoan political authority.
Who killed the Minotaur?
King Minos imprisoned the monster in the labyrinth, and to satisfy the beast’s hunger, King Minos demanded a tribute of young Athenians every nine years. The Athenian prince, Theseus, disguised himself as a sacrifice and killed the Minotaur.
The Early Cultures of Mesopotamian Art
- The region now known as Iraq was once called Sumer during the Early Bronze Age. Despite the earliest recorded historical events only dating back to around 2900 BCE, scholars today think that Sumer was first inhabited by people called the Ubaidians sometime between 4500 and 4000 BCE. Bordering along the Persian Gulf was the city of Eridu, regarded as the first city in the world. It w…
Ceramics in Mesopotamian Art
- Ancient Mesopotamian arts such as ceramics began to see shifts in variety and styles in the fourth millennium BCE due to certain technological advancements such as the potter’s wheel. The production of ceramics first came out of East Asia sometime between 20, 000 and 10,000 BCE, but making clay by throwing it on a potter’s wheel was a practice that originated in Mesopotami…
Sculpture in Mesopotamia
- For more than 2000 years, Mesopotamian art and sculpture had been created for political and devotional reasons, however, the method in which those purposes were conveyed has differed greatly from one period to the next. Based on the most recent archeological research, sculpture from Mesopotamia can be dated back to the 10th millennium BCE, before h...
Mesopotamian and Babylonian Architecture
- To the ancient people of Mesopotamia, the craft of architecture was a divine gift from the gods. A lack of suitable building stone in the region made clay and sun-baked bricks the material of choice for building structures. Pilasters and columns were common features of Babylonian architecture, as well as painted frescoes and the use of enameled tiles. These Assyrian palaces used lines of …
Frequently Asked Questions
- Does Mesopotamia Still Exist Today?
Mesopotamia refers to a region from ancient antiquity which is now known as the countries of Iran, Turkey, and bits of Iraq and Syria, mostly situated between the Tigres/Euphrates River systems and their associated canals. - What Are the Most Common Forms of Mesopotamian Art?
The art of Mesopotamia ranges from the early use of ceramics which were painted with abstract patterns, to the creation of sculpture effigies for religious purposes, and styles used in Mesopotamian architecture to create their ornate temples and palace gates. The first available …
Overview
Cattle are prominent in some religions and mythologies. As such, numerous peoples throughout the world have at one point in time honored bulls as sacred. In the Sumerian religion, Marduk is the "bull of Utu". In Hinduism, Shiva's steed is Nandi, the Bull. The sacred bull survives in the constellation Taurus. The bull, whether lunar as in Mesopotamia or solar as in India, is the subject of various …
In antiquity
The Sumerian guardian deity called lamassu was depicted as hybrids with bodies of either winged bulls or lions and heads of human males. The motif of a winged animal with a human head is common to the Near East, first recorded in Ebla around 3000 BCE. The first distinct lamassu motif appeared in Assyria during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser II as a symbol of power.
In prehistoric art
Aurochs are depicted in many Paleolithic European cave paintings such as those found at Lascaux and Livernon in France. Their life force may have been thought to have magical qualities, for early carvings of the aurochs have also been found. The impressive and dangerous aurochs survived into the Iron Age in Anatolia and the Near East and were worshipped throughout that area as sacr…
Medieval and modern and other uses
The practice of bullfighting in the Iberian Peninsula and southern France are connected with the legends of Saturnin of Toulouse and his protégé in Pamplona, Fermin. These are inseparably linked to bull-sacrifices by the vivid manner of their martyrdoms set by Christian hagiography in the third century.
In some Christian traditions, Nativity scenes are carved or assembled at Christmas time. Many sh…
See also
• Bucranium
• Bugonia
• Camahueto
• Cattle in religion
• Deer in mythology
External links
• An exhibit on the tombs of Alaca Höyük at the Metropolitan Museum of Art includes one example of the bull standards.
• Bull Tattoo Art The image of the bull in tattoo art.