what is identity theory in sociology

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What is an example of social identity theory?

• Individual mobility. When an individual does not view her group favorably, she can attempt to leave the current group and join one with a higher social standing. ...
• Social creativity. In-group members can enhance the social standing of their existing group by adjusting some element of the between-group comparison. ...
• Social competition. ...

What does the social identity theory explain?

Social identity theory, which was formulated by social psychologist Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual. The theory also specifies the ways in which social identity can influence intergroup behavior.

What is the definition of social identity theory?

social identity theory, in social psychology, the study of the interplay between personal and social identities. Social identity theory aims to specify and predict the circumstances under which individuals think of themselves as individuals or as group members. The theory also considers the consequences of personal and social identities for individual perceptions and group behaviour.

What is the identity theory?

What is identity theory? - Identity theory states that mental states simply are physical states - they can be reduced to the same thing - Mental states are ontologically reducible to brain states, it is their identity, how we identify or experience them that is different

What is an example of social identity theory?

Examples of social identity theory include religion, sport, nation, and ethnicity affiliations that help you to construct your identity. The social identity theory was developed by the social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s.

What are theories of identity?

Identity theory is a family of views on the relationship between mind and body. Type Identity theories hold that at least some types (or kinds, or classes) of mental states are, as a matter of contingent fact, literally identical with some types (or kinds, or classes) of brain states.

What are the three theories of identity?

These theories are (1) place-identity theory, (2) social identity theory, and (3) identity process theory.

What is social identity theory and why is it important?

Social identity theory (SIT) provides a framework for explaining intergroup behavior and intergroup communication based on the inherent value humans place on social group memberships, and their desire to view their specific social groups in a positive light. This desire can lead to intergroup prejudice and conflict.

What are the four theories of identity?

Marcia's four identity stages are diffusion (low exploration, low commitment), foreclosure (low exploration, high commitment), moratorium (high exploration, low commitment), and achievement (high exploration, high commitment).

Who introduced identity theory?

As originally formulated by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s, social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour.

What are 5 characteristics of identity?

Aspects of identity examples include our gender, ethnicity, personality, religion, values, and hobbies. Each aspect helps to make up who we are, and make us unique individuals.

What are the two key elements of social identity theory?

Social identity theory is built on three key cognitive components: social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. Generally, individuals wish to maintain a positive social identity by maintaining their group's favorable social standing over that of relevant out-groups.

What does the identity theory state?

The identity theory of mind holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. Strictly speaking, it need not hold that the mind is identical to the brain.

What are the 2 conclusions of the social identity theory?

We divided the world into “them” and “us” based through a process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social groups). 2. the similarities of things in the same group. This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them).

What is the basic assumption of social identity theory?

Social identity theory rests on the assumption that as people categorize others, and themselves, into groups, those group memberships form the basis of their social identity (Brown 2000). People act and react to people based on their own social identity and that of others.

What does social identity theory argue?

Social identity theory has focused on the comparative element in intergroup relations. It asserts that group members are motivated to enhance the value of their in-group relative to the out-group because this enhances their own self-concept.

What are some examples of identity theories?

5 Self-Categorization (and Social Identity) Theory Examples include sports teams, religions, nationalities, occupations, sexual orientation, ethnic groups, and gender. (As discussed earlier in the chapter, psychologists' identification with a particular theoretical approach can also constitute a social identity.)

How many theories of identity are there?

Two theories directly address the process of identity formation: Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development (specifically the Identity versus Role Confusion stage), James Marcia's identity status theory, and Jeffrey Arnett's theories of identity formation in emerging adulthood.

What are the two main theories of personal identity?

Two apparently physiological theories of personal identity are at bottom psychological, namely (i) the Brain Criterion, which holds that the spatiotemporal continuity of a single functioning brain constitutes personal identity; and (ii) the Physical Criterion, which holds that, necessarily, the spatiotemporal ...

What is Erikson's theory of identity?

Erikson believed that childhood identifications lay the groundwork for identity formation in adolescence. The process of forming an identity involves creating a coherent sense of self and who one is in relation to the world.

List three examples of ascribed identities.

The three examples of ascribed identities are social class, ethnicity, and gender.

What is a transgender?

Individuals who identify with a role or gender expression that differs from the sex they were assigned since birth are called transgender.

What is hybrid identity?

Hybrid identity can be identified when an individual’s sense of ‘who they are’ is formed out of two or more characteristics.

What is the ‘underclass’?

The term ‘underclass’ essentially draws attention towards those who are exempted from educational, health, and professional opportunities. Members...

How does ‘age’ shape one’s identity?

Sociologists argue that age is a social construct, and learned during primary and secondary socialisation. It is broadly categorised into childhood...

Who are transsexuals?

When transgender individuals undergo medical procedures (surgery, therapy, etc) and alter their bodies to align with a gender identity, they are ca...

What is collective identity?

When people tend to identify with other members of their group (class), it gives them a sense of collective identity.

What are the three stages of social identity theory?

The three stages are categorisation, identification, and comparison.

Who is the 'middle class'?

The middle class is a diverse group containing people from different social and work backgrounds. People in this category might not be owners of a...

Who developed social identity theory?

Social identity theory, introduced by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the cognitive processes related to social identity and how social identity impacts intergroup behavior.

What is the purpose of the cognitive process theory?

The theory aimed to illuminate both the cognitive processes that lead people to define their group memberships and the motivational processes that enable people to maintain positive social identity by favorably comparing their social group to other groups.

What is social identity?

Updated July 22, 2019. Social identity is the part of the self that is defined by one’s group memberships. Social identity theory, which was formulated by social psychologist Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual.

How do people feel about themselves?

As a general rule, people are motivated to feel positive about themselves and maintain their self-esteem. The emotional investments people make in their group memberships results in their self-esteem being tied to the social standing of their in-groups. Consequently, a positive evaluation of one's in-group in comparison to relevant out-groups results in a positive social identity. If a positive evaluation of one's in-group isn’t possible, however, individuals will generally employ one of three strategies: 1 Individual mobility. When an individual does not view her group favorably, she can attempt to leave the current group and join one with a higher social standing. Of course, this won’t alter the status of the group, but it can alter the status of the individual. 2 Social creativity. In-group members can enhance the social standing of their existing group by adjusting some element of the between-group comparison. This can be accomplished by choosing a different dimension on which to compare the two groups, or by adjusting value judgments so that what was once thought to be negative is now considered positive. Another option is to compare the in-group to a different out-group—specifically, an out-group that has a lower social status. 3 Social competition. In-group members can attempt to enhance the group's social status by collectively working to improve their situation. In this case, the in-group competes directly with an out-group with the objective of reversing the group's social positions on one or more dimensions.

What are the three processes of social identity?

Cognitive Processes of Social Identity. Social identity theory specifies three mental processes individuals go through to make in-group/out-group classifications. The first process, social categorization, is the process by which we organize individuals into social groups in order to understand our social world.

What is social categorization?

Social categorization generally results in an emphasis on the similarities of people in the same group and the differences between people in separate groups. One can belong to a variety of social categories, but different categories will be more or less important depending on social circumstances.

Why do people feel positive about themselves?

As a general rule, people are motivated to feel positive about themselves and maintain their self-esteem. The emotional investments people make in their group memberships results in their self-esteem being tied to the social standing of their in-groups. Consequently, a positive evaluation of one's in-group in comparison to relevant out-groups ...

What did Tajfel believe about groups?

Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups ( e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world.

Why do we categorize people?

In a very similar way we categorize people (including ourselves) in order to understand the social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and bus driver because they are useful.

What is the final stage of social comparison?

The final stage is social comparison. Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a group and have identified with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups. If our self-esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare favorably with other groups.

What is the second stage of social identification?

In the second stage, social identification, we adopt the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as belonging to.

What are the three mental processes that are involved in evaluating others?

Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that there are three mental processes involved in evaluating others as “us” or “them” (i.e. “in-group” and “out-group”. These take place in a particular order.

What is the contribution of Henri Tajfel?

Social Identity Theory. Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership (s). Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source ...

What is social categorization?

Social categorization is one explanation for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and “us” mentality) which leads to in-groups and out-groups.

What is contemporary sociology?

Contemporary sociology's image of society is considerably different from that contained in traditional symbolic interactionism, and it is the contemporary sociological conceptualization of society that is incorporated into the structural symbolic interactionist frame from which identity theory derives. This contemporary conceptualization emphasizes ...

What are the three facets of symbolic interactionist theory?

The refinements essentially have to do with three facets of the traditional symbolic interactionist framework as it evolved from Mead ( [1934] 1962), Cooley ( [1902] 1983), Blumer (1969), and others: the conceptualization of society, the conceptualization of self, and the relative weight to be accorded social structure versus interpretive processes in accounts of human behavior. The traditional framework tends to view "society" as unitary, as a relatively undifferentiated and unorganized phenomenon with few, if any, internal barriers to the evolution of universally shared meanings. It also tends to a view "society" as an unstable and ephemeral reflection, even reification, of relatively transient, ever-shifting patterns of interaction. In this view of society, social structures, as these are typically conceived of by sociologists, have little place in accounts of persons' behaviors. These accounts tend to be innocent of a coherent sense of extant social constraints on those behaviors, and there are few means of linking the dynamics of social interaction in reasonably precise ways to the broader social settings that serve as context for persons' action and interaction.

How does identity theory work?

In identity theory, this theorization proceeds by specifying the terms of the basic symbolic interactionist formula, doing so by focusing on particulars hypothesized as especially likely to be important in impacting role choice. That is, first of all, the general category of social behavior is specified by taking role choice—opting to pursue action meeting the expectations contained in one role rather than another—as the object of explanation. Role choice is hypothesized to be a consequence of identity salience, a specification of the general category of self, and identity salience is hypothesized to be a consequence of commitment, a specification of society. Identity theory's fundamental proposition, then, is: Commitment impacts identity salience impacts role choice.

Why is it important to view society and self as complex and multifaceted as well as organized?

Equally important, viewing both society and self as complex and multifaceted as well as organized opens the way to escaping the overly general, almost banal, and essentially untestable qualities of the basic symbolic interactionist formula by permitting theorization of the relations between particular parts of society and particular parts of self, and by permitting reasonable operationalizations of those parts.

What is the fourth premise of identity theory?

The fourth premise has sometimes been phrased as "self reflects society." Taken in conjunction with the third premise, it gives rise to the basic theoretical proposition or formula of symbolic interactionism: Society shapes self, which shapes social behavior. That formula, it must be noted, admits of and, indeed, insists upon the possibility of reciprocity among its components—social behavior impacts self and society, and self can impact society. Identity theory builds upon refinements of the traditional symbolic interactionist framework and specifications of its basic formula.

What is the fourth premise of self-conception?

And a fourth premise is that self-conceptions, like other meanings, are shaped in the course of interaction with others and are, at least in the initial instance and at least largely, the outcomes of others' responses to the person. The fourth premise has sometimes been phrased as "self reflects society.".

What is the language of this prototypical question?

The language of this prototypical question implies a scope limitation of the theory that is important to recognize at the outset of the discussion. The theory is intended to apply to situations where alternative courses of action are reasonably, and reasonably equivalently, open to the actor.

What is Perinbanayagam 2000?

Perinbanayagam 2000 offers a view of identity primarily through the lens of processual symbolic interactionism and semiotics, rhetoric, and discourse analysis that is quite distinct from the others in this section.

What is the merit of the book Identity?

A particular merit of the book is that its breadth and depth are understandable to undergraduates while being useful to professionals interested in knowing more about the roots of Stryker’s identity theory.

What are the four identities?

We outline four identity theories typically employed by contemporary social psychologists: personal identity, role identity, social identity, and collective identity . Personal identity (see [Personal] Identity Theory ), the most elementary of the four identities, was pioneered by American sociological social psychologists (SSPs), particularly Sheldon Stryker. SSPs emphasize how demographic, social, and cultural factors affect human social interaction. Personal identity is what makes every person unique, defining them through their specific biographies (e.g., name, birthplace), unique characteristics (e.g., intelligent, athletic), role identities (e.g., daughter, employee), and particular combination of private and public experiences. Role identify (see Role Identity Theory ), also pioneered by American SSPs, particularly George J. McCall and J. L. Simmons, is inspired by the language of dramaturgy. Role identity is defined as the role (or character) people play when holding specific social positions in groups. It is relational, since people interact with each other via their own role identities. Social identity (see Social Identity Theory ), pioneered by European psychological social psychologists, particularly Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner, emphasizes how a person’s cognition, affect, and personality traits affect immediate person-to-person social interactions and vice versa. It is the part of an individual’s self-concept formed through the knowledge of his or her membership in meaningful social groups and organizations (e.g., Kiwanis Club, the Cleveland City Club) and categories (e.g., Native American, northerner). In short, it is through our public selves that we are able to simplify the world around us by using categorizations to infer our similarities and differences to other people. Finally, collective identity (see Collective Identity Theory ), also pioneered by European psychological social psychologists, especially Alberto Melucci, is the self in action. Collective identities are especially important to social movement participants, political activists, and others banding together to fight for or against social change by working on shared goals and action plans. In short, it is a process by which a set of individuals interacts to create a shared sense of identity or group consciousness.

What is psychological centrality?

The concept of psychological centrality views the self as an interrelated system of hierarchically organized components (e.g., identities and personal attributes). Psychological centrality helps people protect their self-concepts by pushing potentially damaging self-components to the periphery of the self system while holding self-enhancing ones closer to the center.

What is affect control theory?

While affect control theory emphasizes the way people confirm their identities through the selection and enactment of role-appropriate actions, the new theory is more broadly about the self. Specifically, people confirm their selves by selecting and enacting identities. McCall, George J., and J. L. Simmons. 1978.

When was the book Role Identity first published?

First published in 1966 , this is a clearly written and comprehensive book-length treatise on the foundation and many facets of both processual and structural symbolic interactionist viewpoints on roles and identities. This much-cited book is particularly known for its erudite introduction to the authors’ seminal sociological social psychological role identity theory.

Who edited "Me and We"?

Virshup. 1997. Me’s and we’s: Forms and functions of social identities. In Self and identity: Fundamental issues. Edited by R. D. Ashmore and L. Jussim, 106–133. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

What does Foucault believe about power?

Foucault – opposes the view that knowledge is power – one of the ways in which power works is through producing ‘truths’ about the world. These truths come to seem obvious, necessary and self-evident, they form part of the coherence of the social world and place the self within it.

How does discourse differ from ideology?

Discourse differs to the concept of ideology because ideology presupposes a real which is beyond ideology which the ideology obscures – to speak of discourses is to speak of the knowledges which produce the truth. Foucault, in fact talks of the politics of truth.

How does government work today?

The way government works today is through establishing normal-abnormal categories along these various dimensions of identity and then people employ technologies of the self in order to stay within the boundaries of normality (usually) – (the struggle is to keep up, or stay ahead, if you like!)

How does subjectification affect people?

Through subjectification, people become tied to specific identities, they become subjects, but they also become subject-ed to the rules and norms engendered by a set of knowledges about these identities.

What is Michel Foucault's work on identity?

A summary of Michel Foucault’s work on identity, deviance and normality, governmentality, subjectification and technologies of the self, taken from Steph Lawler’s ‘Identity’ (2014) – also includes Nikolas Rose’s development of Foucault’s work.

What does Nikolas Rose call the norm of autonomy?

What Nikolas Rose calls the ‘norm of autonomy’ has become an orthodoxy in many discussions about identity – but we should consider the argument that when we are incited to be ‘free’, we are then the most enmeshed in in the workings of power – the relationship of the self to itself within a contemporary project of self-actualisation, self-awareness and self-improvement has become a norm which ties us to relentless self-scrutiny, in which we watch ourselves for signs of deviancy and wrong doing.

What is the Enlightenment view?

The Enlightenment view = ‘knowledge is power’ – if we obtain knowledge this will free us from the workings of power. This assumes a true self which lies outside or beyond power and self-knowledge, realised through reason.

How does identity theory affect the physical environment?

We propose that relational positioning in terms of the distance between locations where identities are enacted, is a form of intermediate social structure which facilitates and constrains contact with identity-related others. The physical environment impacts the identity process by shaping the composition of one’s daily contacts, for example, someone who has to travel a long way to church will have a less religiously homogenous social circle, which shapes the subsequent identity process. This proposition is examined using data collected from individuals residing in communities which vary in the difficulty of traveling through the physical environment. The results support the inclusion of relational positioning as a form of intermediate social structure in identity theory, opening a potential pathway for connecting research on social inequalities and identity theory.

What does symbolic capacity mean?

on meanings in and through interaction. The symbolic capacity of humans means they have minds;

How does customer orientation affect frontline employees?

Customer-oriented frontline employees are motivated by a strong desire to help customers. While such motivation enhances customer outcomes, it can also encourage frontline employees to engage in customer-directed prosocial behaviors that undermine organizational norms. We consider such a possibility and find that: (1) in their quest to satisfy customers’ needs, customer-oriented employees engage in customer-focused voice and/or pro-customer rule breaking, (2) the extent to which employees perform these behaviors depends on whether they identify with the organization or customers, (3) customer-focused voice enhances while pro-customer rule breaking hinders role performance, (4) the net performance consequences of a customer orientation can be positive or negative, and (5) various contingency factors determine whether rule breaking results in lower performance ratings from supervisors. These findings offer evidence of a customer orientation dark side and, paradoxically, underscore that internally focused marketing efforts are critical for a customer orientation to enhance frontline employee performance.

What is the view of society?

view of society as a product of social action and interaction. Social life is a dynamic fl ow of events

What is surfer identity?

The surfer identity illustrates how a salient (frequently enacted) and prominent (important) voluntary identity can significantly impact self-development. The father identity represents a salient and prominent obligatory identity and demonstrates identity change through the acquisition of a new identity.

What is serious leisure?

Stebbins’s concept of serious leisure has been widely used to delineate and describe an intense form of leisure participation. To date, however, the causal relationships among the six distinguishing characteristics of serious leisure have not been sufficiently substantiated and empirically examined. Guided by identity theory, this study developed a causal model among four individual level behavioral and psychological characteristics of serious leisure and level of commitment. Data were collected via mail surveys from members of the American Birding Association (N = 954). Results of structural equation modeling indicated that: (a) durable benefits positively affected commitment, identity, perseverance, and effort; (b) commitment positively influenced perseverance and effort; and (c) identity positively affected perseverance and effort. Results provide evidence that identity and commitment play mediating roles between durable benefits and other facets of serious leisure experience (i.e., perseverance, effort). These findings highlight the pivotal role of durable benefits in serious leisure participation.

How does identity theory influence identity verification?

Here, I suggest that proximate social structure may influence identity verification because (1) it provides information about the immediate social context in which verification occurs, and (2) it provides information about relationship-based resources, such as social support, to which individuals have access to offset the negative effects of non-verification. Drawing from social network analysis to measure proximate social structure, I focus on the moderating effect of network density, or the proportion of one’s social contacts that are connected to one other, in the verification process of the friend identity. I hypothesize that a dense friendship network buffers the negative emotions associated identity non-verification. Results from a sample of 277 individuals who participated in an egocentric network survey support the expectations. This advances identity theory by revealing how the structure of one’s social network matters for identity verification. It also bridges identity theory and social network analysis by showing the utility of network-level concepts in conceptualizing and measuring social structure.

Origins: Studies of In-Group Favoritism

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Cognitive Processes of Social Identity

Maintenance of Positive Social Identity

Discrimination Against Out-Groups

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