Who is the true founder of the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Empire was founded circa 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at Çimpe Castle on the Dardanelles in 1354 and moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1369.
Who came first the Roman Empire or the Ottoman Empire?
Roman Empire, which was established by Augustus, was controlled from 27 B.C. to 476 A.D., while the Ottoman Empire, which was conquered by Osman I, was dominated from 1299 A.D. to 1923 A.D. Living in a separate period in a different location with distinct cultures and customs, these two empires do show differences but also some similarities.
Who destroyed Ottoman Empire?
Timur actually destroyed the Ottoman Empire. (Some historians call it "Bayezid Empire".) How the Ottoman state was re-established is still quite a mystery that modern historians should answer. Quite absurdly to the modern history writings, Manuel II helped the Ottomans to build their state again.
Why was the Ottoman Empire founded?
The main reason is that the Ottoman Empire was founded with the idea of conquest at its core. From Osman I to Suleiman the Magnificent , the leaders of the Ottoman Empire believed that they were “ghazi”, holy warriors sent by God to fight ceaselessly against the unbelievers and extend the power and influence of Islam.
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Where was the Ottoman Empire founded?
It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire.
What is the name of the Ottoman Empire?
In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ("The Ottoman Empire") or Osmanlı Devleti ("The Ottoman State"). The Turkish word for "Ottoman" ( Turkish: Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century.
What were the parties of the Young Turks?
Among them " Committee of Union and Progress ", and " Freedom and Accord Party " were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organised under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913 .
What was the Ottoman miniature about?
Ottoman miniature about the Szigetvár campaign showing Ottoman troops and Tatars as avant-garde. In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.
How did the discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states help them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopol?
The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.
How many provinces did the Ottoman Empire have?
At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states.
What was the Ottoman Empire's military system?
The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military throughout the 17th and for much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires.
Where did the Ottoman Empire originate?
Origins of the Ottoman Empire. Osman I, a leader of the Turkish tribes in Anatolia, founded the Ottoman Empire around 1299. The term “Ottoman” is derived from Osman’s name, which was “Uthman” in Arabic. The Ottoman Turks set up a formal government and expanded their territory under the leadership of Osman I, Orhan, Murad I and Bayezid I.
Who were the leaders of the Ottoman Turks?
The Ottoman Turks set up a formal government and expanded their territory under the leadership of Osman I, Orhan, Murad I and Bayezid I.
When Did the Ottoman Empire Fall?
At the start of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was already in decline. The Ottoman army entered the war in 1914 on the side of the Central Powers (including Germany and Austria-Hungary) and were defeated in October 1918.
How many Sultans were there in the Ottoman Empire?
A total of 36 Sultans ruled the Ottoman Empire between 1299 and 1922. For many of these years, the Ottoman Sultan would live in the elaborate Topkapi palace complex in Istanbul. It contained dozens of gardens, courtyards and residential and administrative buildings.
What was the rise of the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Empire reached its peak between 1520 and 1566, during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. This period was marked by great power, stability and wealth.
What did Sultan Suleiman do?
Suleiman created a uniform system of law and welcomed different forms of arts and literature. Many Muslims considered Suleiman a religious leader as well as a political ruler. Throughout Sultan Suleiman’s rule, the empire expanded and included areas of Eastern Europe.
How many Armenians were killed in the Ottoman Empire?
In 1915, Turkish leaders made a plan to massacre Armenians living the Ottoman Empire. Most scholars believe that about 1.5 million Armenians were killed.
When was the Ottoman Empire founded?
The Ottoman Empire was founded circa 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople.
Which country supported the Ottomans?
A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in 1543. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period.
How many people did the Ottoman Empire control?
It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.
What was the classic thesis of the Ottoman Empire?
Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Classic thesis — as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) with the subsequent Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Previously marked by the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, the writing of " Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya " and the death of Koca Ragıp Pasha;
How did nationalism affect the Ottoman Empire?
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.
Why did the majority of the Orthodox population accept Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule?
Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by Loukas Notaras 's famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.
How many Crimean Tatars were there in the Ottoman Empire?
From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire.
Where did the Ottoman Empire originate?
The Ottoman Empire was founded. (Ottoman is derived from Uthman, the Arabic form of Osman.) From its small bridgehead in Anatolia, Osman and his son Orhan (1288-1362) began expanding their lands northwest into Byzantine Empire territory and east into the rest of Anatolia.
Who ruled the Ottoman Empire?
At its apogee, Suleiman the Magnificent (c. 1495-1566) ruled the Empire and oversaw important achievements of Ottoman culture. In 1683 the Turks attempted to continue their European expansion by attacking Vienna in July. The assault failed; the slow decline of the Empire had begun.
What was the territory of the Ottoman Empire?
By 1481 the Ottoman Empire territory included most of the Balkan Peninsula and all of Anatolia. During the second great expansion period from 1481 to 1683, the Ottoman Turks conquered territory in Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), and Hungary.
How long did the Ottoman Empire last?
Over a time span of six hundred years, from about 1300 to 1923, the Ottoman Empire expanded into the largest political entity in Europe and western Asia and then imploded and disappeared into the back pages of history.
What happened after the Turkish war?
After the war, from the years 1919 and 1923, Mustafa Kemal led a national uprising (the Turkish War of Independence) against the last Ottoman sultan which laid the foundation of the new Turkish State ...
Which empire controlled the region of Anatolia?
In the 13th century, the region of Anatolia (most of the Asian part of present day Turkey) was controlled by the Byzantine Empire in the northwest and the Seljuk Turks in the southwest.
Which empire was created by a contributor to eHistory prior to its affiliation with The Ohio State University?
Byzantine Empire. Ottoman Empire. This item was created by a contributor to eHistory prior to its affiliation with The Ohio State University. As such, it has not been reviewed for accuracy by the University and does not necessarily adhere to the University's scholarly standards.
What did Osman conquer?
When Osman was still bey (lord) of a beylic he conquered an area equivalent to a small Anatolian city , which today would be equivalent to 1/3 of the territory of Bursa, in Turkey, which corresponds to 1,036 km². Osman’s sight, despite being a humble man, was certainly ambitious, and this can be clearly seen in his conquests, since he was not just an occupier who eventually plundered the city and left it by itself. This is something that can also be seen in the inheritance he left for his children 2: horse armor, a pair of boots, some banners, a sword, a spear, a box of arrows, three flocks of sheep, a salt shaker and a box with a set of spoons.
Who is Osman from?
According to Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayi tribe and its lineage was derived from the legendary warrior Oguz Khan. The Kayi tribe, established in Anatolia 1, was one of the many vassal Turkish tribes of the Seljuk Empire, and later would also play a fundamental role for the origins of the Ottoman Empire.
What did Osman think of the visional ring?
Osman thought that he was in the act of placing that visional ring on his finger, when he awoke.
Why was the year 1324 important?
The year 1324 (or 1323), when conquering Bursa, was also important due to Osman’s death. Because of his age and the increase of his illness, he placed his eldest son, Orhan, at the head of his troops. On his deathbed in Sogut, Osman lived long enough to hear from his son about Bursa’s surrender. According to the legend, Osman then gave Orhan his final advice:
What was the most important factor in Osman's conquests?
An important factor in Osman’s conquests is that when he conquered the most significant territories of his legacy, the collapse of the Seljuk Turks’ authority also followed them, especially in the episodes of the occupations of the Eskisehir and Kulucahisar strongholds. The city of Yenisehir previously mentioned was the first significant conquest in the Seljuk territories, serving as the first capital of the Ottoman Empire.
What was Osman's strategy?
It seems that Osman’s strategy was to increase his territory at the expense of the Byzantine Empire, all while avoiding conflict with more powerful Turkish neighbors. Thus, his first forays were through the passages that lead from the arid areas of northern Phrygia close to modern Eskişehir to the most fertile plains of Bithynia, achievements that were made possible by the defeat of the local Byzantine nobles, while at other times the environment would be different, for example through buying lands, marriage and other peaceful means or that simply just did not involve military disputes 3.
Where was Osman's last battle?
As for the last campaign of Osman’s life in the city of Bursa, although the sultan was not physically present in the battle, victory in Bursa was vital for the Ottomans, achieving an increasingly favorable position against the Byzantines.
What was the Ottoman Empire dependent on?
While the industrial revolution swept through Europe in the 1700s and 1800s, the Ottoman economy remained dependent upon farming. The empire lacked the factories and mills to keep up with Great Britain, France and even Russia, according to Michael A. Reynolds, an associate professor of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. As a result, the empire’s economic growth was weak, and what agricultural surplus it generated went to pay loans to European creditors. When it came time to fight in World War I, the Ottoman Empire didn’t have the industrial might to produce heavy weaponry, munitions and iron and steel needed to build railroads to support the war effort.
What countries did the Ottoman Empire include?
At its apex, the Ottoman empire included Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Macedonia, Romania, Syria, parts of Arabia and the north coast of Africa. Even if outside powers hadn’t eventually undermined the empire, Reynolds doesn’t think that it could have remained intact ...
Why did the Ottoman Empire fall?
Before the war, the Ottoman Empire had signed a secret treaty with Germany, which turned out to be a very bad choice.
How long did the Ottoman Empire last?
But it didn’t last. Though the Ottoman Empire persisted for 600 years, it succumbed to what most historians describe as a long, slow decline, despite efforts to modernize. Finally, after fighting on the side of Germany in World War I and suffering defeat, the empire was dismantled by treaty and came to an end in 1922, when the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed and left the capital of Constantinople (now Istanbul) in a British warship. From Ottoman empire’s remains arose the modern nation of Turkey.
When was the Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent?
The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1683.
Did the Ottoman Empire survive World War I?
If it weren’t for its fateful role in World War I, some even argue that the empire might have survived. Mostafa Minawi, a historian at Cornell University, believes the Ottoman Empire had the potential to evolve into a modern multi-ethnic, multi-lingual federal state. Instead, he argues, World War I triggered the empire’s disintegration. “The Ottoman Empire joined the losing side,” he says. As a result, when the war ended, “The division of territories of the Ottoman Empire was decided by the victors.”
Which country did the Ottomans first capture?
a. The Ottomans first captured the Slavic regions of Poland.
Who treated the Ottomans as a major power?
e. The Ottomans were treated as a major power by the principal European states.
What happened after the Kurdish seizure of Constantinople in 1521?
c. after the Kurdish seizure of Constantinople in 1521, Ottoman support of the new Kurdish ruler gave them greater control over Asia Minor. d. as they established European settlements, Turkish beys replaced local landlords, and became the only recipients of taxes collected from the Slavic peasant population.
Which defeat created Ottoman hegemony over Abu Dhabi?
d. the Serbian defeat created Ottoman hegemony over Abu Dhabi.
Which population refused to assist Ottoman efforts in any way?
b. the Balkan population refused to assist Ottoman efforts in any way.
Who led the Ottoman conquest of the Mamluks in a. central Asia?
Emperor Selim led the Ottoman conquest of the Mamluks in a. central Asia.
Who led the crusade to save the city for Christendom?
e. Pope Innocent XII personally led a crusade to save the city for Christendom
Mehmed II (also known as Mehmet the Conqueror)
Mehmed II, the seventh sultan of the Ottoman Empire, is popularly known as Mehmed the Conqueror or Fatih Sultan Mehmet. He is known by those epithets mostly due to his military achievements and his strong patronage of the arts and poetry.
Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I was known for his patronage of the arts and education and of building projects as well as collecting, codifying and unifying the laws of his kingdom. The laws that he unified remained in place for more than three centuries.
Murad II
Murad II was the sixth Ottoman Sultan. He was also the father of Mehmed the Conqueror
Murad IV
In spite of the turbulent environment that Sultan Murad IV inherited upon becoming Ottoman sultan in 1623, lthe young sultan was able to restore Constantinople’s authority throughout the kingdom. To attain those goals, Murad IV, a son of Sultan Ahmed I, had to deploy some very ruthless techniques.
Selim I
Selim I, who went by epithets such as Selim the Resolute and Selim the Grim, was military genius who took the empire to new heights.
Bayezid II
Before rising to the throne on May 22, 1481, Sultan Bayezid II, the eldest son of deceased Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, had to fend fierce resistance from his younger half-brother Cem Sultan (1459-1495), whose claim to the Ottoman throne was supported first by Grand Vizier Karamanli and later the Mamluks in Egypt.
Selim III
Selim III succeeded his uncle Abdul Hamid I to become the 28th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Overview
Science and technology
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to …
Name
The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān (عثمان). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه), literally "The Supreme Ottoman State", or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti (عثمانلى دولتى). In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ("The Otto…
History
As the Rum Sultanate declined well into the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman I (d. 1323/4), a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived. Osman's e…
Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state
Several historians such as British historian Edward Gibbon and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that in essence, the Ottoman Empire was a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a Turkish Muslim guise. The American historian Speros Vryonis wrote that the Ottoman state was centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish la…
Government
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Ce…
Administrative divisions
The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.
The Eyalet (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided in Sanjaks. The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Teskil-i Vilayet Niz…
Economy
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews fro…
Origins of The Ottoman Empire
Rise of The Ottoman Empire
- By 1517, Bayezid’s son, Selim I, brought Syria, Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt under Ottoman control. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak between 1520 and 1566, during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. This period was marked by great power, stability and wealth. Suleiman created a uniform system of law and welcomed different forms of arts and literature. Many Muslims consi…
What Countries Were Part of The Ottoman Empire?
- At its height, the Ottoman Empire included the following regions: 1. Turkey 2. Greece 3. Bulgaria 4. Egypt 5. Hungary 6. Macedonia 7. Romania 8. Jordan 9. Palestine 10. Lebanon 11. Syria 12. Some of Arabia 13. A considerable amount of the North African coastal strip
Ottoman Art and Science
- The Ottomans were known for their achievements in art, science and medicine. Istanbul and other major cities throughout the empire were recognized as artistic hubs, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. Some of the most popular forms of art included calligraphy, painting, poetry, textiles and carpet weaving, ceramics and music. Ottoman architecture also helped defin…
Fratricide
- Under Sultan Selim, a new policy emerged, which included fratricide, or the murder of brothers. When a new Sultan was crowned, his brothers would be imprisoned. When the Sultan’s first son was born, his brothers and their sons would be killed. This system ensured that the rightful heir would take the throne. But, not every Sultan followed this harsh ritual. Over time, the practice ev…
Topkapi
- A total of 36 Sultans ruled the Ottoman Empire between 1299 and 1922. For many of these years, the Ottoman Sultan would live in the elaborate Topkapi palace complex in Istanbul. It contained dozens of gardens, courtyards and residential and administrative buildings. Part of the Topkapi palace included the harem, a separate quarters reserved for wives, concubines and female slave…
The Ottoman Empire and Other Religions
- Most scholars agree that the Ottoman Turk rulers were tolerant of other religions. Those who weren’t Muslim were categorized by the millet system, a community structure that gave minority groups a limited amount of power to control their own affairs while still under Ottoman rule. Some millets paid taxes, while others were exempt.
Devshirme
- In the 14th century, the devshirme system was created. This required conquered Christians to give up 20 percent of their male children to the state. The children were forced to convert to Islamand become slaves. Although they served as slaves, some of the converts became powerful and wealthy. Many were trained for government service or the Ottoman military. The elite military gro…
The Decline of The Ottoman Empire
- Starting in the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire began to lose its economic and military dominance over Europe. Around this time, Europe had strengthened rapidly with the Renaissance and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. Other factors, such as poor leadership and having to compete with trade from the Americas and India, led to the weakening of the empire. In 1683, the Ottoma…
When Did The Ottoman Empire Fall?
- At the start of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was already in decline. The Ottoman army entered the war in 1914 on the side of the Central Powers (including Germany and Austria-Hungary) and was defeated in October 1918. Following the Armistice of Mudros, most Ottoman territories were divided between Britain, France, Greece and Russia. The Ottoman Empire officially ended in 192…
Overview
The Ottoman Empire was founded c. 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at Çimpe Castle on the Dardanelles in 1354 and moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the numerous small Turkic states in …
Classical Age (1453–1566)
The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the Eastern Orthodox Church, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonom…
Ottoman etiology
With the end of the First World War and the Ottoman Empire, questions arose in a geopolitical and historical context about the reasons for the emergence and decline of the Ottomans, their empire and how both were defined. On the eve of World War II, the geographical position and geopolitical weight of Turkey, the major historical heir to the Ottoman Empire, gave the issues weight as propaganda. The first item on the agenda of the Tehran conference was the issue of Turkey's par…
Formulable theses
1. Ghaza thesis — it is formulated first, but it is the most criticized and politicized. The thesis most clearly advocates the ethnic pan-Turkic principle. It was developed by Paul Wittek;
2. Renegade thesis — represented in studies, articles and books by various authors. It is based on numerous eyewitness accounts. It is supplemented by the hypothesis of the geographical and to some extent civilizational succession of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm) by the Eastern Roman Empire;
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)
With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum during 12th to 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. For the next few centuries, these Beyliks were under the sovereignty of Mongolians and their Iranian Kingdom Ilkhanids. This accounts for the Persian nature of the later Ottomans. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities. One of the beyliks was led by
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the Silk Road. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia through new discoveries at sea. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 …
Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)
During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Em…
Decline and modernization (1828–1908)
During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War, the Ottomans united with Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Russia.