is plasmodium an apicomplexan

What is the structure of Plasmodium apicomplexans?

Like other apicomplexans, Plasmodium species have several cellular structures at the apical end of the parasite that serve as specialized organelles for secreting effectors into the host. The most prominent are the bulbous rhoptries which contain parasite proteins involved in invading the host cell and modifying the host once inside.

What is the taxonomy of Plasmodium?

Taxonomy. Plasmodium belongs to the phylum Apicomplexa, a taxonomic group of single-celled parasites with characteristic secretory organelles at one end of the cell. Within Apicomplexa, Plasmodium is within the order Haemosporida, a group that includes all apicomplexans that live within blood cells.

What is the difference between Apicomplexa and parasites?

Apicomplexa are obligate intracellular lower eukaryotic single cell organisms that are only capable of replication when they properly associate with their parasitized host cell. Apicomplexa parasites, such as Toxoplasma or the malaria parasite Plasmodium, use sophisticated, ingenious invasion strategies to infect their host cells.

How many apicomplexan amino acid transporters in Plasmodium falciparum?

In this study, we focused on a family of Apicomplexan amino acid transporters (ApiATs) that comprises five members in Plasmodium falciparum. First, we localized four of the P. falciparum ApiATs ( Pf ApiATs) at the PPM using endogenous green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagging.

Is Plasmodium falciparum a apicomplexan?

1 Introduction. The phylum Apicomplexa contains several important pathogens such as Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the most dangerous form of human malaria.

Is malaria caused by an apicomplexan?

The Apicomplexa are a diverse group that includes organisms such as the coccidia, gregarines, piroplasms, haemogregarines, and plasmodia. Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include: Babesiosis (Babesia) Malaria (Plasmodium)

What are the examples of Apicomplexa?

CoccidiaPlasmodiumGregarina...Piroplasmi...BabesiaTheileriaApicomplexa/Lower classifications

What is another name for apicomplexan?

apicomplexan, also called sporozoan, any protozoan of the (typically) spore-producing phylum Apicomplexa, which is called by some authorities Sporozoa.

Which of the following is an apicomplexan parasite?

Apicomplexan parasites include Plasmodium spp., the agents of malaria; Toxoplasma gondii, a significant opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals; Eimeria spp., pathogens of chicken and cattle; Theileria spp., tick-borne parasites of cattle in Africa; and Cryptosporidium, an animal parasite as well as an ...

What type of transmission is malaria?

How is malaria transmitted? Usually, people get malaria by being bitten by an infective female Anopheles mosquito. Only Anopheles mosquitoes can transmit malaria and they must have been infected through a previous blood meal taken from an infected person.

How many species of Apicomplexa are there?

5000 speciesThe Apicomplexa is a protozoan phylum of around 5000 species, the majority of which are parasitic, infecting a wide range of animals from mollusks to mammals (Cavalier-Smith 1993).

What diseases are caused by Sporozoans phylum Apicomplexa?

As a whole, the phylum is a diverse group that includes organisms that cause human diseases such as babesiosis (Babesia), cryptosporiidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum), cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora cayetanensis), cystoisosporiasis (Cystoisospora belli), malaria (Plasmodium), and toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii).

Is Toxoplasma a gondii Apicomplexa?

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which is a significant human and veterinary pathogen. Other members of the phylum Apicomplexa are also important pathogens including Plasmodium species (i.e. malaria), Eimeria species, Neospora, Babesia, Theileria and Cryptosporidium.

What is an example of Sporozoans?

An example of Sporozoan is Plasmodium falciparum which is known to cause malaria. Human beings act as a host for these parasites and female Anopheles mosquitoes as vectors.

What is the definitive host in a apicomplexan parasite?

Toxoplasma gondii is a coccidian parasite which infects humans as well as a wide variety of mammals and birds. It exhibits a predator-prey type life cycle (as discussed above for Sarcocystis) and felines are the only definitive host.

Is Plasmodium a protist?

Parasitic protists cause disease with high mortality and morbidity. These protists include Plasmodium, Leishmania, Trypanosoma, and Toxoplasma. The diseases they cause include malaria, sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease.

What diseases do apicomplexans cause?

In this context, malaria (Plasmodium species), babesiosis (Babesia sp.), toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii), neosporosis (Neospora sp.), and cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum) are diseases caused by apicomplexan parasites (Chakraborty et al., 2017; Martínez-Ocampo, 2018).

What disease is caused by Cryptosporidium?

Cryptosporidium is a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrheal disease cryptosporidiosis. Both the parasite and the disease are commonly known as “Crypto.”

Which of these human diseases are caused by Sporozoans?

[Note: A group of non-flagelled, non-ciliated, and non-amoeboid protists – the Sporozoans – are also responsible for widespread human diseases such as malaria (Plasmodium sp., transmitted by mosquitoes) and toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii, contracted from unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat, or house cats) that ...

What are the 3 modes of transmission for malaria?

Mode of Transmission: Malaria is transmitted by the bite of an infective female Anopheles mosquito. Transfusion of blood from infected persons and use of contaminated needles and syringes are other potential modes of transmission. Congenital transmission of malaria may also occur.

What is the family of Plasmodium?

Family: Plasmodiidae. Genus: Plasmodium. Marchiafava & Celli, 1885. Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects. The life cycles of Plasmodium species involve development in a blood-feeding insect host which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host during a blood meal.

Who first identified Plasmodium?

Plasmodium was first identified when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran described parasites in the blood of malaria patients in 1880. He named the parasite Oscillaria malariae. In 1885, zoologists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli reexamined the parasite and termed it a member of a new genus, Plasmodium, named for the resemblance to the multinucleate cells of slime molds of the same name. The fact that several species may be involved in causing different forms of malaria was first recognized by Camillo Golgi in 1886. Soon thereafter, Giovanni Batista Grassi and Raimondo Filetti named the parasites causing two different types of human malaria Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae. In 1897, William Welch identified and named Plasmodium falciparum. This was followed by the recognition of the other two species of Plasmodium which infect humans: Plasmodium ovale (1922) and Plasmodium knowlesi (identified in long-tailed macaques in 1931; in humans in 1965). The contribution of insect hosts to the Plasmodium life cycle was described in 1897 by Ronald Ross and in 1899 by Giovanni Batista Grassi, Amico Bignami and Giuseppe Bastianelli.

How do parasites live?

Parasites first infect the liver or other tissue, where they undergo a single large round of replication before exiting the host cell to infect erythrocytes. At this point, some species of Plasmodium of primates can form a long-lived dormant stage called a hypnozoite. It can remain in the liver for more than a year. However, for most Plasmodium species, the parasites in infected liver cells are only what are called merozoites. After emerging from the liver, they enter red blood cells, as explained above. They then go through continuous cycles of erythrocyte infection, while a small percentage of parasites differentiate into a sexual stage called a gametocyte which is picked up by an insect host taking a blood meal. In some hosts, invasion of erythrocytes by Plasmodium species can result in disease, called malaria. This can sometimes be severe, rapidly followed by death of the host (e.g. P. falciparum in humans). In other hosts, Plasmodium infection can apparently be asymptomatic.

How do parasites maintain their genome?

Plasmodium parasites maintain a single copy of their genome through much of the life cycle, doubling the genome only for a brief sexual exchange within the midgut of the insect host. Attached to the nucleus is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which functions similarly to the ER in other eukaryotes.

What is the function of the Plasmodium mitochondrion?

Like in other eukaryotes, the Plasmodium mitochondrion is capable of generating energy in the form of ATP via the citric acid cycle; however, this function is only required for parasite survival in the insect host, and is not needed for growth in red blood cells.

What is the name of the disease caused by parasites?

The ensuing destruction of host red blood cells can result in disease, called malaria. During this infection, some parasites are picked up by a blood-feeding insect (mosquitoes in majority cases), continuing the life cycle. Plasmodium is a member of the phylum Apicomplexa, a large group of parasitic eukaryotes.

When were Plasmodium parasites first discovered?

Plasmodium parasites were first identified in the late 19th century by Charles Laveran. Over the course of the 20th century, many other species were discovered in various hosts and classified, including five species that regularly infect humans: P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, and P. knowlesi.

What is the family of Plasmodium?

Plasmodium belongs to a genus of parasitic protozoans. Family: Apicomplexa, Class: Aconoidasida, Sporozoan Subclass: Coccidia.

How many species of Plasmodium are there?

Plasmodium (single-celled parasites) can infect people and cause sickness with five different species:

What is the second stage of the plasmodium life cycle?

Sporozoite is the second stage of the plasmodium life cycle. When a sporozoite-infected anopheles mosquito bites a human, sporozoites are transmitted from the insect into the bloodstream of the human. Human liver cells are where sporozoites enter the bloodstream after entering the bloodstream. Sporozoites enter the liver cell, where they proliferate asexually and mature into schizonts. Merozoites are released when the liver cells are ruptured.

What is the disease caused by a female anopheles mosquito?

When it comes to malaria and the parasite that causes it, Plasmodium knowlesi is the specific species of plasmodium that causes the sickness known as malaria. Malaria is caused by a female anopheles mosquito that has been infected with these parasites biting a mammal.

How did plasmodium evolve?

For the past 120 million years, plasmodium has evolved in lockstep with vertebrate evolution. As a result, the plasmodium has evolved through new hosts, followed by adaptation to those hosts, demonstrating the major rationale for the plasmodium's evolution. P. gaboni, P. falciparum, P. ovale, and P. reichenowi are among the plasmodium species that have been isolated from chimps. P. mexicanum and P. floridense are Plasmodium parasites found in reptiles, whereas P. relictum and P. juxtanuclear are Plasmodium parasites found in birds.

What are the diseases caused by protozoans?

Protozoans are responsible for certain human diseases such as malaria. This disease is caused by Plasmodium, a small protozoan. Different Plasmodium species (Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malaria , and Plasmodium falciparum) cause different kinds of malaria. Malignant malaria was the most serious of these.

Can you get malaria multiple times?

People who are infected multiple times may get the disease yet show little or no symptoms. The severity of malaria symptoms depends on your age, general health, and the type of malaria parasite you have.

What parasites are in the apicomplexan?

Other important apicomplexan parasites affecting humans include Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium parvum, which are known to be opportunistic pathogens. T. gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, and is able to infect and persist in multiple tissues, including the brain and muscles ( Montoya and Liesenfeld, 2004 ). Humans are infected through the consumption of cysts present in undercooked meat, or through oocyst-contaminated water or soil. Sporozoites contained in oocysts are transformed, after ingestion, into tachyzoites, a highly invasive and replicative form responsible for the symptoms of the disease. The pressure of the host immune response induces a switch to the bradyzoite latent form, which persists inside the host for its entire life. Infections are usually asymptomatic, but can cause severe ocular and neurological disorders in cases of congenital toxoplasmosis and in immunocompromised individuals.

What is the apicomplexa?

Apicomplexa is a large phylum of parasitic protists belonging to the Alveolata group, together with ciliates and dinoflagellates. Several of its members are causative agents of human diseases. Malaria, which is caused by members of the genus Plasmodium, is a major global health problem resulting in more than half a million of deaths per year ( White et al., 2014 ). Like many other apicomplexan parasites, Plasmodium has a complex life cycle. Sporozoites are transmitted from a mosquito vector to mammalian hosts and first multiply in the liver to produce merozoites, which will initiate red blood cell infection. Clinical manifestations of malaria are directly caused by the repeated cycles of parasite growth in erythrocytes inducing, in severe cases, chronic anemia, liver dysfunctions, and often fatal complications such as cerebral malaria.

How many microtubules are in Toxoplasma zoites?

The elongated shape of Toxoplasma zoites is maintained by the association of 22 evenly spaced subpellicular microtubules that interact with the cytosolic face of the pellicle ( Nichols and Chiappino, 1987 ).

What is the microtubule and alveolin network organization in Toxoplasma tachyz?

(A) The Toxoplasma pellicle consists of the plasma membrane and an underlying patchwork of associated vesicular alveoli termed the IMC. The APR marks the site where the IMC begins, leaving the extreme apical region enclosed by plasma membrane.

What does C-E mean in parasites?

C–E) Projections of wild-type (C) and His28Gln mutant (E) parasites indicate that His28Gln mutant parasites have longer microtubules. These three-dimensional projections were created by collecting and deconvolving Z-series images of newly invaded parasites stained with a T. gondii -specific tubulin antibody. An overlay of the wild-type parasite projection (green) on the His28Gln mutant parasite projection (red) illustrates the increased subpellicular microtubule length in the mutant parasites (D).

Which parasites infect humans?

Parasites belonging to the apicomplexa which infect animals or humans 85 include Toxoplasma and Plasmodium, and the genera Eimeria, Isospora, Cyclospora, Babesia, Cryptosporidium, Theileria, and Sarcocystis. Most protozoa use flagella or cilia for active movement.

What is autophagy in cellular homeostasis?

Macroautophagy (usually simply referred to as “autophagy”) is a self-degradative process which can be activated in response to stresses, but is also a housekeeping mechanism for cellular homeostasis ( Shibutani and Yoshimori, 2014 ). It involves a double-membrane compartment called the autophagosome to sequester and degrade intracellular components after fusion with a lysosome. Autophagosome formation requires autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, many of which were originally identified in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The core autophagic machinery is evolutionary conserved in most of the eukaryotic phyla, including early-branching eukaryotes such as parasitic protists from the Alveolata group ( Brennand et al., 2011 ). However, searches for human or yeast ATG homologues in these parasites’ genome sequence databases reveal that these proteins appear to be only partially conserved in these organisms.

What is the name of the taxon Apicomplexa?

Cyclosporiasis ( Cyclospora cayetanensis) Cystoisosporiasis ( Cystoisospora belli (formerly known as "Isospora Belli")) Toxoplasmosis ( Toxoplasma gondii) The name of the taxon Apicomplexa derives from two Latin words— apex (top) and complexus (infolds)—and refers to a set of organelles in the sporozoite.

How many species of apicomplexa were named?

Since then, many more have been identified and named. During 1826–1850, 41 species and six genera of Apicomplexa were named. In 1951–1975, 1873 new species and 83 new genera were added. The older taxon Sporozoa, included in Protozoa, was created by Leuckart in 1879 and adopted by Bütschli in 1880.

What are the features of the phylum of gliding?

Other features common to this phylum are a lack of cilia, sexual reproduction, use of micropores for feeding, and the production of oocysts containing sporozoites as the infective form.

How do parasites infect a host?

Most members have a complex lifecycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a host is infected via an active invasion by the parasites (similar to entosis ), which divide to produce sporozoites that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites, which infect new cells.

What is the apical complex?

The apical complex consists of a set of spirally arranged microtubules (the conoid ), a secretory body (the rhoptry) and one or more polar rings. Additional slender electron-dense secretory bodies ( micronemes) surrounded by one or two polar rings may also be present. This structure gives the phylum its name.

What is the name of the phylum of parasitic alveolates?

Gregarinia. (= Gregarinasina) The Apicomplexa (also called Apicomplexia) are a large phylum of parasitic alveolates. Most of them possess a unique form of organelle that comprises a type of non-photosynthetic plastid called an apicoplast, and an apical complex structure.

Where are microgametes and macrogametes found?

Microgametes and macrogametes are always found in the blood. The gametes are taken up by the insect vector during a blood meal. The microgametes migrate within the gut of the insect vector and fuse with the macrogametes. The fertilized macrogamete now becomes an ookinete, which penetrates the body of the vector.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the “Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa 2019-2023” Program (CEX2018-000806-S), and support from the Generalitat de Catalunya through the CERCA Program.

Footnotes

Citation Chi J, Cova M, de las Rivas M, Medina A, Borges RJ, Leivar P, Planas A, Usón I, Hurtado-Guerrero R, Izquierdo L. 2020. Plasmodium falciparum apicomplexan-specific glucosamine-6-phosphate N -acetyltransferase is key for amino sugar metabolism and asexual blood stage development. mBio 11:e02045-20. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02045-20.

REFERENCES

1. World Health Organization. 2020. WHO | World malaria report 2019. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/world-malaria-report-2019. [ Google Scholar]

What is the phylum of Apicomplexa?

Distribution. As mentioned, the majority of already identified phylum Apicomplexa species are parasites of animals and human beings. For this reason, their distribution across the world is largely dependent on the species, environmental conditions (climate), and the host they infect.

How many species are there in the phylum Apicomplexa?

Previously called Protozoa, along with several other groups, the Phylum Apicomplexa is large and is further divided into 300 genera and over 60 families that consist of over 5000 species. The majority of species already identified are obligate intracellular parasites that infect a variety of animals ...

Why are apicoplasts considered vestigial plastids?

Because they are non-photosynthetic plastids, apicoplasts are mostly regarded as vestigial plastids of apicomplexan parasites. They are suggested to have originated from endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria about 1 billion years ago. As plastids, the apicoplast contains 35kb circular genome.

How many flagella are there in Plasmodium?

While male gametes in Plasmodium contain a single flagellum, Toxoplasma microgametes are bi-flagellated and thus contain two flagella. In both cases, the structure consists of 9 doublet microtubules and a central pair.

What are the three processes that occur in the life cycle of Apicomplexa?

Members of the phylum Apicomplexa have a complex life cycle that is characterized by three major processes that include merogony, sporogony, and gametogony. For most species, this cycle alternates between sexual and asexual stages in one or different hosts depending on the organism.

What is the name of the class of organisms that reproduce through sexual and asexual means?

Conoidasida . The class Conoidasida was introduced by Levine in 1988. It's further divided into subclasses coccidia (mostly infect vertebrates) and gregarines (parasites of invertebrates) which are characterized by a hollow conoid. They reproduce through sexual and asexual means and produce flagellated microgametes.

What is the kingdom of Chromalveolata?

Kingdom: Chromalveolata (2005 classification) - A large group consisting of morphologically variable protists. The group is divided into four main groups that include Heterokontae, Alveolatae, Hacrobiae, and Rhizariae.

What are the cell structures of an apicomplexan?

Cellular structure of a typical, generalised apicomplexan: 1-polar ring, 2-conoid, 3-micronemes, 4-rhoptries, 5-nucleus, 6-nucleolus, 7-mitochondria, 8-posterior ring, 9-alveoli, 10-golgi apparatus, 11-micropore. Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages evolved to allow them to survive the wide variety ...

What is the process of apicomplexa?

Apicomplexans (sporozoans) replicate via ways of multiple fission (also known as schizogony ). These ways include gametogony, sporogony and merogony, although the latter is sometimes referred to as schizogony, despite its general meaning. Merogony is an asexually reproductive process of apicomplexa.

What is the first phase of the life cycle of a coccidiosis?

In coccidiosis, merozoites form the first phase of the internal life cycle of coccidian. In the case of Plasmodium, merozoites infect red blood cells and then rapidly reproduce asexually. The red blood cell host is destroyed by this process, which releases many new merozoites that go on to find new blood-borne hosts. Merozoites are motile.

Why do apicomplexans have life cycles?

Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages evolved to allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism is typified by a cellular variety with a distinct morphology and biochemistry .

Which organisms are involved in sprogony?

Organisms whose life cycles rely on this process include Theileria, Babesia, Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma gondii. Sporogony is a type of sexual and asexual reproduction. It involves karyogamy, the formation of a zygote, which is followed by meiosis and multiple fission. This results in the production of sporozoites.

What is the cell form that infects new hosts?

A sporozoite (ancient Greek sporos, seed + zōon, animal) is the cell form that infects new hosts. In Plasmodium, for instance, the sporozoites are cells that develop in the mosquito's salivary glands, leave the mosquito during a blood meal, and enter liver cells ( hepatocytes ), where they multiply. Cells infected with sporozoites eventually burst, ...

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